HEALING INTERGENERATIONAL TRAUMA
HEALING INTERGENERATIONAL TRAUMA BY BLENDING TRADITIONAL PRACTICES
AND WESTERN HEALING METHODS

Violet A. Dunn
University of Fraser Valley

MAJOR PAPER SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL
FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK
In the
School of Social Work and Human Services
UNIVERSITY OF THE FRASER VALLEY
Spring 2020

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Table of Contents
HEALING INTERGENERATIONAL TRAUMA BY BLENDING TRADITIONAL
PRACTICES AND WESTERN HEALING METHODS ....................................................... I
APPROVAL ............................................................................................................................. IV
UNIVERSITY OF THE FRASER VALLEY PARTIAL COPYRIGHT LICENCE ...........V
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................. VI
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................. VII
DEDICATION ...................................................................................................................... VIII
SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................. 1
1.1 Historical Context ............................................................................................................... 3
Colonization ................................................................................................................................ 3
Federal Indian Residential Schools ............................................................................................. 4
The Sixties Scoop ........................................................................................................................ 5
Intergenerational Trauma ............................................................................................................ 6
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) ..................................................................................... 7
Personal Connection.................................................................................................................... 8
Conceptual Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................ 9
SECTION 2: LITERATURE REVIEW................................................................................ 10
Current Literature .................................................................................................................. 10
What is not working for Aboriginal Healing? ...................................................................... 12
What it takes to Integrate Two Worldviews ......................................................................... 17
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SECTION 3: INTERCONNECTEDNESS: RESTORE, RECONNECT, RECOVER &
RECONCILE........................................................................................................................... 18
COGNITIVE- BEHAVIOR THERAPY ............................................................................... 26
SECTION 4: MODELS AND EFFECTIVE APPROACHES THAT CORRELATE
WITH BLENDING WORLDVIEWS ................................................................................... 27
Medicine Wheel as a Framework .......................................................................................... 27
Narrative Therapy................................................................................................................... 29
DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................ 31
THEMATIC FINDINGS ........................................................................................................ 32
GAPS, LIMITATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS ................................................................... 35
SECTION 4: CONCLUSION ............................................................................................... 36
REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 38
APPENDIX A .......................................................................................................................... 44
APPENDIX B .......................................................................................................................... 45
APPENDIX C .......................................................................................................................... 46

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Approval

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University of the Fraser Valley Partial Copyright Licence

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HEALING INTERGENERATIONAL TRAUMA

Abstract
The purpose of this paper was to review literature on Blending Indigenous Healing Approaches
and Mainstream Traditional Approaches, specifically for intergenerational trauma. Indigenous people
have endured many forms of assimilation that continues to impact their health, safety and well-being. It
appears mainstream healing approaches are ineffective on its own, a plausible solution would be to
blend Indigenous healing approaches into appropriate mainstream healing methods.

Keywords are: Intergenerational Trauma, blending, integrating, healing

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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank University of Fraser Valley for the opportunity to pursue my postgraduate
degree. Thank you to Sharon Forbes for your encouragement and guidance, I appreciate you.
Thank you to the amazing instructors that challenged my way of thinking, encouraged me, and of
course for teaching valuable lessons that assisted me in my paper. I am forever grateful to my cohort;
the endless support, encouragement, laughs, and friendship, thank you.
Thank you to my family and friends for your words of encouragement, which was like an energy boost.
Last but definitely not least, my husband Garry, he continues to show me what unconditional love is, he
has given me a tremendous amount of support through this journey.

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Dedication
I dedicate this paper to my beautiful imats (grandchildren) whom I can only hope for a better
future for them, to my beautiful children Curtis, Brennen, Brittany and Daine whom continue to amaze
me by the wonderful humans they continue to grow into. To my husband for looking after me, and his
quiet encouragement that keeps me going.

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Section 1: Introduction
Aboriginal people and communities in Canada have felt the direct impact of colonization. “The
term “Aboriginal” refers to the first inhabitants of Canada, and includes First Nations, Inuit, and Métis
peoples. This term came into popular usage in Canadian contexts after 1982, when section 35 of the
Canadian Constitution defined the term as such” (indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca, 2009). Before
European contact, Aboriginal people had their own traditions and customs of governing their people
and communities. The Canadian Federal government imposed foreign policies, specifically the Indian
Act, in 1876, to control Aboriginal people and community’s day to day interactions. One of the
overarching goals of the Indian Act was to assimilate Indians into good Christian people. Once the
Indian Act was implemented, every aspect of their life was forever impacted through the many losses.
Aboriginal people lost their ability to practice sovereignty, language, cultural ceremony and practices,
traditional parenting or childcare systems.
The attempts of genocide and assimilation left a devastating cultural and physical impact on
generations of First Nation families. One of the main effects of that legacy of destruction is
intergenerational trauma, the transmission of historical oppression that is subsequently passed down
through generations. “The concept of intergenerational trauma acknowledges that exposure to
extremely adverse events impacts individuals to such a great extent that their offspring find themselves
grappling with their parents’ post traumatic state” (Yehuda & Lehrner, 2018, p. 243). The negative
effects of intergenerational trauma continue to reverberate through First Nation communities. The
negative effects of trauma are passed down, and moreover, felt from generation to generation. The
symptoms, behaviors and/or negative effects of intergenerational Trauma can include: mental health
issues, addictions, poverty, homelessness, family violence and others (Aguiar & Halseth, 2015).
Aboriginal peoples have been severely impacted by historical trauma, it is vital to their overall health

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and well-being that effective and culturally appropriate strategies be developed to breakdown the
intergenerational transmission of this trauma (Menzies, 2010).
The significance of this paper is to research current literature and models that demonstrate the
integration of western and Indigenous healing approaches and practices benefiting First Nation people
as a whole. RCAP, 2016 states (as cited in Hill, 2008) for Aboriginal people, healing means to
overcome personal and societal effects of oppression. “Healing means moving beyond hurt, pain,
disease and dysfunction to establishing new patterns of living that produce sustainable well-being”,
Lane, Bopp, Bopp, & Norris, 2002 (as cited in Hill, 2008).
The goal of this paper is to address the significance of intergenerational trauma and how it
impacts Indigenous people so healing can begin. Indigenous is a general term used to identify a group
of people on an international level. It refers to a group of people that have lived on lands for a long time
and were impacted by colonialism (indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca, 2009). First Nation, Aboriginal
and Indigenous will be used interchangeably in this paper. In Canada, Indian is may have a negative
connotation and can be seen as disrespectful, however some First Nations continue to use the term out
of habit. Indian is a term that originated from the Indian Act. It identifies a First Nation person as
having status (registered with the Indian act). However, in the United States, American Indian is very
commonly used and accepted (indigenousfoundations.arts.ubc.ca, 2009).
Aboriginal peoples have only recently made the connection between Indian residential schools
and intergenerational trauma, and cycles of abuse. Indigenous knowledge encompasses every aspect of
Aboriginal people’s way of knowing and being; it is holistic as spirituality, history, cultural practices,
social interactions, language, and healing are all considered to be interconnected. Indigenous
knowledge in simplistic terms is “ …a complete knowledge system with its own concepts of

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epistemology, philosophy, and scientific and logical validity…which can only be understood by means
of pedagogy traditionally employed by these people themselves” (Hill D. M., 2009, p. 27).
1.1 Historical Context
The history of Aboriginal people is quite complex and at times, misunderstood. Prior to colonization,
Aboriginal people had effective and efficient approaches to govern their communities, land, resources
and policies. Cultural and traditional protocols were in place to respect the ways of being and knowing.
All community members had a role in maintaining these policies and protocols. Colonization, a
destructive tool of the Government to annihilate Aboriginal people was met with resistance, however
not without obliterating many Aboriginal communities (Freeman & Lee, Towards An Aboriginal
Model of Community Healing, 2007).
Policies were put in place for Aboriginal people and one of the most destructive ones was residential
schools. The horrifying stories of physical and sexual abuse as well as spiritual and psychological
abuse are still being told today. Once the residential schools closed, the sixties scoop was put in place
to remove children, sometimes forcibly and frequently adopted out to mostly non-Aboriginal families
and often out of the country of Canada.
Colonization
For over four hundred years, Aboriginal peoples have suffered from the effects of
colonialization. Colonization is defined as control by one power over a dependent area or people
(Merriam-Webster, n.d.). The effects of colonization and assimilation of Aboriginal peoples are
categorized into different groups: physical impacts, economic impacts, cultural/social impacts, and
psychological impacts (Castellano & Archibald, 2007, p. 73). Colonization has left a legacy of
destruction, one of particular note in the form of Indian residential school institutions. Indian
Residential schools were federally funded institutions, and placed across Canada and the United States.
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It is important to remember Aboriginal Peoples of Canada have experienced colonization and the
devastating impacts as a commonality, and it is important to remember they are three distinct groups
with their own distinct territories and traditional customs and practices (Marsh, Coholic, Cote-Meek, &
Najavits, 2015).
Federal Indian Residential Schools
A policy to create and develop Indian residential schools were one of the main attempts, by the
government, to assimilate Aboriginal peoples. It was estimated, approximately 100, 000 children were
placed in Indian residential schools across Canada. The first Indian residential school opened in
Brantford Ontario in 1883. “Following recommendations made in the Davin Report, Sir John A.
Macdonald authorizes creation of residential schools in the Canadian West”, and by the year 1920, the
Deputy Superintendent of Indian Affairs enforced attendance of children age 7-15 years. It was not
very long ago that the last federal run Indian residential school closed its doors. Gordon Indian
Residential School in Saskatchewan closed in 1996 (100 Years of Loss, 2020). Some impacts of Indian
residential schools include loss of identity, loss of community, loss of family connection, loss of
childhood, loss of language and culture and other losses (Goforth, 2006). The Indian residential schools
left a legacy of shame, loss and self-hatred. Residential school survivors suffered horrific trauma at the
very hands of the caregivers, that were meant to care for them. The abuse that occurred at residential
schools is labelled as ritual abuse and is defined as “repeated, systematic, sadistic and humiliating
trauma to the physical, sexual, spiritual and/or emotional health of a person…” (Chansonneuve, 2005, p.
35). It is significant, as social workers to have knowledge of this as often the child sexual abuse will
not be remembered until adulthood. Mental health issues arose by Intergenerational trauma are anxiety,
depression, eating disorders, PTSD (Post Traumatic Stress Disorder), alcohol and drug abuse, and an
array of other mental health issues. Aboriginal people experience a disproportionate amount of mental
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health issues, up to 70% compared to non – Aboriginal peoples (Menzies, 2010). It is important to note
that some Aboriginal people are modeling the exact behavior that was done to them. Lateral Violence is
rampant in some Aboriginal families, organizations, communities and nations. Lateral violence is a
learned behavior resulting from colonialism, and Middleton- Moz (as cited in Chansonneuve, 2005)
defined as “the shaming, humiliating, damaging, belittling and sometimes violent behavior directed
toward a member of a group by other members of the same group.” Lateral violence includes gossip,
put-downs, unhealthy competition, violence against vulnerable people and family members
(Chansonneuve, 2005, p. 41).
The Sixties Scoop
Once the Indian residential institutions closed, the Sixties Scoop was put in place and an
estimated 27, 000 children were removed from homes, families and communities, and put in foster care
or adopted out (Menzies, 2010). The Indian residential schools were supported by a single policy
prepared by the Department of Indian Affairs and carried through by the federal government while the
Sixties Scoop was a provincial jurisdiction policy (Valiquette, 2019). The Sixties Scoop (or 60’s Scoop
as found in the newspapers and social media) was appropriately coined in a report written by Patrick
Johnston in the early 1980’s. It was during the 1960’s that Aboriginal children were at the highest rate
of being apprehended. It is significantly noted that in most cases, it was without consent or consultation
with families and band leaders. Children were usually adopted out to non-aboriginal families, and
additionally these homes were across Canada, United States and overseas. It has been seen as a form of
genocide, as children were forcibly removed from their own communities and immersed into a foreign
culture. Many adults that were a part of the Sixties Scoop, are having identity issues, and are now
attempting to reconcile with their birth families (Sinclair, 2007). Holly McKenzie et al (as cited in
Valiquette, 2019) proposed that the negative impacts of the Indian residential schools were one of the
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reasons Indigenous children were being removed from birth families. Moreover, Allyson Stevenson (as
cited in Valiquette, 2019) proclaims three generations of family attended residential schools, and
returned with unresolved grief and trauma, and recently, it has been noted that intergenerational trauma
was a cause of loss of parenting skills.
Intergenerational Trauma
The price Aboriginal peoples had to pay for the attempted assimilation and genocide is
intergenerational trauma, and it came at a very high price. Furthermore, “the phenomenon called
intergenerational trauma” (also known as historical trauma transmission, collective trauma,
transgenerational grief, and historic grief) has occurred among families of survivors, including among
those who did not themselves attend the schools” (Roy, Noormohamed, Henderson, & Thurston, 2015).
Dr. Maria Yellow Horse Braveheart conceptualized “historical trauma” historical unresolved grief” and
“historical trauma response” in 1985, however she states the work had begun in 1976 (Wellbriety, 2005,
p. 3). She explains historical trauma is a result of historical policies implemented such as taking away
traditional practices, “a cumulative emotional and psychological wounding over the lifespan and across
generations, emanating from massive group trauma” (Wellbriety, 2005, p. 4).
At the beginning of his career, Duran conducted a needs assessment in a native community, and
heard terms such as “spiritual injury, soul sickness, soul wounding and ancestral hurt”, and it was
through oral tradition that Elders were able to describe the soul wounding process, thus the coined
expression “soul wound” emerged (Duran, Healing the Soul Wound: Counselling with American
Indians and Other Natives, 2006, pp. 15, 16). Soul Wound refers to traumatic events inflicting the
wounding of the soul, moreover, when this ancestral wounding is not addressed, it becomes more
severe when passed down to subsequent generations (Duran, Healing the Soul Wound: Counselling
with American Indians and Other Natives, 2006). The detrimental health and social issues of
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aboriginal people is thought to be caused by the intergenerational trauma with an outcome of
disconnection and shame in their culture (Chansonneuve, 2005).
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)
There is a blaringly obvious discrepancy between PTSD and historical trauma (Marsh, Coholic,
Cote-Meek, & Najavits, 2015). Waboose states adult Aboriginal people that attended residential
schools experiencing symptoms are often diagnosed with PTSD. She goes on to explain PTSD has a
beginning and an end to the event, whereas Aboriginal people who attended residential schools, have
no beginning and no end to the trauma (Waboose, 2016).
Some scholars believe that diagnosing Aboriginal people with PTSD is an inadequate analysis
when you consider the context of trauma Aboriginal people experienced. Post-traumatic stress disorder
has been categorized under Trauma – and Stressor – Related Disorders in the Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition (DSM-5) clustered with other disorders. These trauma – and
stressor – related disorders “include disorders in which exposure to a traumatic or stressful event is
listed explicitly as a diagnostic criterion” (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth
Edition, 2013, p. 265). The following criteria for diagnosis of PTSD apply to children age 6 years up to
adulthood: 1. experiencing or witnessing direct trauma such as death, threatened death, serious injury,
or sexual assault. 2. Intrusive memories, flashbacks that is recurring, or involuntarily related to the
traumatic event. 3. Avoiding any internal or external stimuli of traumatic event. 4. Mood changes that
cause negative cognitive outlook, and lastly, 5. Increased arousal and reactions as a result of trauma
such as irritable and reckless behavior, hyper-vigilance, sleep disorders and others. (Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, 2013). It makes no reference at all to cultural
and intergenerational trauma, and does not link these experiences to contemporary trauma. PTSD
diagnosis does not include the complexity of what Aboriginal people have experienced as a result of
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colonization (Duran, 2006; Menzies, 2010; Aguiar & Halseth, 2015). Duran explains the way
Aboriginal people view historical trauma or intergenerational trauma is the suffering occurs in the soul
or spirit (Duran, Healing the Soul Wound: Counselling with American Indians and Other Natives,
2006).
Personal Connection
Ḱalhwá7alap. Xwemcen nskwatsita7, Violet Dunn nskwatsita7. Tákem nsnekẃnùḱwa7.
St’at’imc úcwalmicw. Xaxli’pmeckan. Gloria Joseph nskicza7a, Angus Doss nsqátsza7a. Tákem
nsnekẃnúḱwa7. (Greetings. My name is Xwemcen. My English name is Violet Dunn. All my Relations.
I am from St’at’imc (territory). I am Xaxli’pmeckan (belong to this community). My mother is Gloria
Joseph. My father is Angus Doss. All my relations.
Introducing myself in St’at’imcets is important to me, as I was robbed of my culture and
traditional teachings, including language as a result of cultural assimilation. My mother attended
Federal Indian Day School up until she was 15 years old. She was a fluent St’at’imcets speaker, and
strong in her traditions. My mother said her teachers were nuns, and constantly hit her over the head
with a book and sometimes strapped her to stop her from speaking her language. I attended the Federal
Indian Day School for one year in my community, at this time the nuns were gone and non-Aboriginal
teachers replaced them. They could be just as cruel as the nuns. My father attended the Indian
Residential School for over 11 years, and he has told me he did not learn any education, that he was
there to work as a laborer, other than that he never did speak of his experience there. I attended
Kamloops Indian Residential School for five years and I was barely eight years of age. There were
hundreds of children there yet it was a lonely place, I rarely saw my sisters and my one younger male
cousin that was like my brother, I could only wave to him from afar.

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The intergenerational trauma that has affected my family alone is evidence enough for me to
recognize the devastation it caused. Some of the damages include loss of identity, losing family and
community connection, and feeling like a total stranger when I came home. The impacts of those losses,
as a child, youth, and an adult affected my relationships with people closest to me. My own experience
in choosing mainstream or Aboriginal healing approaches was built on trust, reputation and
qualifications, and back then I did not have very much trust for anybody. Blending or integrating
approaches and methods has been very powerful to observe in myself and others. Gus Hill’ view on
Aboriginal peoples healing is there is a traditional approaches or non-traditional, and there is no
acceptance of people that are in the middle, and I have observed and felt that same attitude (Hill G. ,
2014).
The key areas that will be addressed are how intergenerational impact (s) Aboriginal peoples,
and what is working in the mainstream mental health arena and why it is not effective will be explored,
and finally, how will blending Traditional Indigenous knowledge and Western healing methods
improve the long-term success of healing intergenerational trauma. The research approach will employ
a literature review. I will explore any blending of Traditional Indigenous knowledge and western
healing methods to heal trauma, specifically, intergenerational trauma in Aboriginal peoples, and the
most appropriate and effective healing approaches. The literature review will explore the mental health
profession in regards to current approaches when working with Aboriginal peoples. This study may
inform future research and outcomes of blending different Traditional Aboriginal healing approaches
and Mainstream traditional healing methods.
Conceptual Theoretical Framework
This literature review was guided by the researchers own interest in the research topic, and
experiences of being a social worker practitioner, and an Aboriginal client that received services of the
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blending of Indigenous healing approaches and Mainstream healing methods, in regards to
intergenerational trauma. This research is grounded in Indigenous knowledge. Indigenous knowledge
is holistic, involving the mind, body and spirit, and is mainly transmitted through oral tradition,
ceremonies and experiences (Reid, Greaves, & Kirby, 1949).
Section 2: Literature Review
The literature review explores scholarly and gray Indigenous and non-Indigenous literature on
Traditional Healing approaches blended or integrated with Mainstream Healing Methods. Blending
Indigenous healing approaches and mainstream healing methods is an approach to provide a service
that is culturally appropriate and provides a meaningful experience that will provoke effective
outcomes. Blending the two healing methods and approaches can enhance and complement each other.
There is a consensus among scholars and practitioners that mainstream mental health services are
inadequate, inappropriate and ineffective for treating Indigenous people (Duran, 2006; Beaulieu, 2011),
so a collective collaboration of both Aboriginal and mainstream healing approaches can produce
culturally appropriate and effective outcomes for Aboriginal people. Moreover, a collective
collaboration is vital to break the cycle of intergenerational trauma and begin the healing of generations.

Current Literature
The concept of blending traditional healing and the western theoretical approaches is to
develop effective outcomes by encouraging mental health professionals to look at all aspects of healing
before applying different approaches and to recognize how it fits with different situations (Nabigon &
Wenger - Nabigon, 2012). Indigenous scholars argue, to accurately evaluate the healing of an
Aboriginal community requires an Indigenous knowledge framework, as it is holistic in nature. Elders
and healers believe western concepts do not include a holistic approach which isolates the client from
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culture, family and community (Hill D. M., 2009). Some mainstream mental health scholars and
clinicians are calling for a collaboration, to integrate western and traditional practices to close the gap
of inadequate services (Oulanova & Moodley, 2010, p. 347). Although there is a demand for this
integration, there appears to be a lack of knowledge on implementation. Indigenous worldviews are
complex and involves much more than textbooks (Oulanova & Moodley, 2010). Indigenous healing
approaches are often disregarded, as they are not viewed as authentic, which, unfortunately will allow
the trauma to continue (Duran, Duran, Yellow Horse Brave Heart, & Yellow Horse - Davis, 1998).
Integration of western and Indigenous healing can only be successful when Indigenous knowledge is
acknowledged and protocols are observed as Indigenous people are the rightful owners of their
traditional practices (Hill, Lau, & Sue, 2010).
Any individual within a culture is going to have his or her own personal interpretation of the
collective cultural code; however, the individual's world view has its roots in the culture - that is, in
the society's shared philosophy, values and customs. If we are to understand how Aboriginal and
Eurocentric worldviews clash, we need to understand how the philosophy, values and customs of
Aboriginal culture differ from those of Eurocentric cultures. (Inc., 2016).
Traditional Indigenous knowledge has been practiced amongst Aboriginal peoples since time
immemorial. Traditional healers or medicine men and women, can be male or female, and have
different gifts from the Creator to fulfil. They are seen as physicians, psychiatrists, therapists and
spiritual advisors at any given time. Traditional healers or medicine men have their own protocol and
are accountable to their people, their sacred laws and the Creator. Elders are the knowledge keepers and
provide guidance, and this is how traditional knowledge is passed down (Malloch, 1982). Indigenous
traditional healing practices are sacred. Sacred ceremonies are significant to healing the mind, body,

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and spirit. Ceremonies include praying, smudging, sweat lodge, healing circles, and the medicine wheel,
guided by a traditional healer or knowledge keeper (Hill G. L., 2008).
Mainstream approaches implemented with traditional approaches must include Indigenous
worldviews and practices. The values of Indian medicine and western medicine are two very distinct
and different systems, and to integrate both will take careful consideration to ensure the integrity of
traditional medicine is intact (Malloch, 1982). Integrating western medicine and Indigenous medicine is
a concept that maybe uncertain to some people, and may take time to change attitudes and behaviors, as
there are aspects of western medicine that is valuable to Indigenous people (Malloch, 1982). There are
mental health issues in Indigenous communities, and some cases may be more complex than others,
that require mainstream healing methods to adequately address the complexity of the mental health
issue or disorder (Beaulieu, 2011).
What is not working for Aboriginal Healing?
There are some Aboriginal people that view current mental health services as “inappropriate,
inadequate, inaccessible and culturally insensitive,” specifically those that are provided through
contemporary western-based service delivery methods (Goforth, 2006; Oulanova & Moodley, 2010;
Bowden, Caine & Yohani, 2017). Aboriginal clients are less likely to return to therapy due to mistrust
and power differentials of mental health and other government health systems. Western healing models
can be viewed as inappropriate or inadequate as it often fails to include the spiritual aspect of healing,
that is significant to Aboriginal people (Goforth, 2006; Oulanova & Moodley, 2010). The mental health
system, an illness service delivery model focuses on treating the psychological aspect of the client’s
behavior and does not address the environmental and cultural influences (Hitchens & Becker, 2015). It
also does not seem to fully comprehend Aboriginal people’s worldview of everything being
interconnected and interrelated. When treating Indigenous people with mental health issues, all aspects
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of the person must be considered, this may include exploring cultural background, family history, and
historic trauma or intergenerational trauma effects.
It has been noted that Aboriginal communities do not have greater mental illness then general
populations; however, they do have more mental health problems. The mental health problems stem
from very high levels of social, emotional and mental distress which cause poor quality of life (Nelson,
2012). Ross states (as cited in Aguiar & Halseth, 2015) residential schools left a legacy of shame, loss
and self-contempt that caused addiction and other mental health issues in Aboriginal communities.
Indian residential schools stole children, culture, values, beliefs, language and spirituality from
Aboriginal people, and impacted severely that the trauma eroded generations of healthy communities
(Aguiar & Halseth, 2015). The losses are still deeply felt today.
Mainstream health services are viewed as ineffective as Aboriginal service users are declaring
the quality of care and services are poor. Other reasons cited for ineffectiveness is lack of awareness of
Aboriginal worldviews, cultural insensitivity, and lack of trust of practitioners. (Beaulieu, 2011).
Western mental health does not consider nor care that the trauma Indigenous people suffered is not an
isolated event and the experiences of colonization continues to effect Indigenous people (Hill, Lau, &
Sue, 2010).
Mental Health professionals typically use the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM) to diagnose a patient/client. Duran states that mental health professionals are trained
within a medical model that seeks pathological causes, and when that strategy fails, personality and
characterological disorders maybe diagnosed, which can be difficult to treat, following the DSM
manual (Duran, Healing the Soul Wound: Counselling with American Indians and Other Natives,
2006). There has been much criticism of the DSM, it is seen as a flawed assessment instrument for the
following reasons: promoting a reductionist approach encourages clinicians to focus on a diagnosis for
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the behavior therefore overlooking any underlying causes of behavior, disorders are believed to occur
inside the client, the DSM only looks at the client in isolation rather then consider interpersonal
relationships, there is no consideration or regard for the determination and resilience that have brought
the client thus far, social workers are encouraged to offer a diagnosis onset of intervention, and lastly it
is generates a lot of money for each edition that is revised, as well as pharmaceutical companies
profiting from new disorders that require medication (Corcoran & Walsh, 2016; Hitchens & Becker,
2015).
The DSM is referred as the “psychiatric bible” due to the dependability in mental health. It is
regarded as being flawed as the validity and reliability are problematic and additionally, there is no
consideration of cultural, social and political events that very well may impact the diagnosis process.
(Hitchens & Becker, 2015, p. 303). For those similar reasons, Waldram (as cited in Menzies, 2010,
p.68) states the DSM diagnosis of Post-Traumatic Stress overlooks the role of culture, intergenerational
and community trauma.
Research in the United States reveal mainstream approaches in therapy prove to be ineffective
as there were high rates of under-usage of services; drop - outs in services despite the reported high
rates of mental health issues; and high rates of inadequate services. Canadian Aboriginal people have
reported they are not receiving the same mental health services as non-Aboriginal peoples (Beaulieu,
2011). Additionally, Menzies states there are disproportional rates of mental health and addictions in
Aboriginal population compared to non-Aboriginal peoples. The data is not analyzed as to why this
disparity of mental health issues exist and Menzies proposes “if we do not consider mental illness
within the context of historical injustices then we are collecting and presenting information in a
vacuum, and perpetuating the stereotype that Aboriginal peoples are more susceptible to mental
illnesses then the generational population” (Menzies, 2010, p. 66).
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The underlying causes of diagnosed mental health when left untreated and undiagnosed can
leave Native people at a disservice (Duran, Healing the Soul Wound: Counselling with American
Indians and Other Natives, 2006). The DSM has been criticized for not looking at cultural, social and
political situations that may impact the course of diagnosis (Hitchens & Becker, 2015). Consequently,
mental health issues in Aboriginal communities have been linked to the effects of colonization.
DeChamplain found mental health issues such as depression, anxiety, substance use and other
psychological disorders are considered to be linked to intergenerational trauma caused by cultural
genocide. As well he claims that additional research focusing on colonialism, discrimination and
cultural genocide could be key factors in diagnosing psychological disorders (DeChamplain, 2019).
Historically, Aboriginal people have lived very rich lives, rich in their culture and traditions.
They had good health and harvested medicines off the land for any illness. Traditional knowledge
guided their day to day interactions and was significant to their well-being (Mussell, 2008). Mental
illness perpetuates a mind-body dualism; the mind and body are perceived as separate entities whereas
Aboriginal people believe all entities are connected. Mental health services are based on biomedical
and psychiatry models. Therefore, an Aboriginal person that is suffering from depression or addictions
is immediately diagnosed without understanding that there are deep rooted issues causing mental health
problems.
France and colleagues (2004) (as cited in Bowden, Caine, & Sophie, 2017) argued that when
counselling Aboriginal people “the lack of understanding of the historical, political, and social aspects
of oppression and how it disrupts counselling practice [with Aboriginal clients] has been one reason
why counselling has not been as effective as it could be” (Bowden, Caine, & Yohani, 2017, p. 42).
Duran observes the irony, from a philosophical stance, how therapy focuses on cognitive perceptions
when in actuality psychology is the science of the soul therefore creating inconsistency in clinical
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practice (Duran, Healing the Soul Wound: Counselling with American Indians and Other Natives,
2006). Duran (as cited in Marsh, Coholic, et al, 2015) posits mainstream approaches have yet to
understand the significance of Indigenous knowledge and how it pertains to healing (Marsh, Coholic,
Cote-Meek, & Najavits, 2015). Aboriginal people view traditional healing to include ceremonies, and
traditional medicines that promote wellness in all aspects of a person’s life, RCAP (as cited in Robbins
& Dewar, 2011).
Mainstream mental health professionals have minimal training or knowledge of Aboriginal
worldviews and cultural practices (Beaulieu, 2011; Bowden, Caine, & Yohani, 2017). According to
Duran (as cited in Beaulieu, 2011) Imposing western worldviews and healing approach is another form
of oppression and dominance: “Lack of understanding of the Native epistemological root metaphor
(ways of being in the world, including psychological and spiritual worlds) continues to hinder our
profession” (Beaulieu, 2011, pp. 27, 28). As ways of knowing, Western worldviews and Indigenous
Knowledge have very different perspectives. Worldviews can relate to individuals, groups and the
world. Worldviews are comprised of beliefs, and values that are upheld by a group of people, basically
all people have a worldview. It says how people interact with each other and the world. Typically,
worldviews are passed down, and often can be taken for granted as the way things are. People can
adapt to worldviews from other cultures.
The difference between Indigenous and western worldviews, is Indigenous worldviews are
focused on balance and harmony (physically, mentally, emotionally and spiritually), relationship and
interconnectedness to all of creation is of utmost importance (Beaulieu, 2011). Baskin proposes that to
find meaning in this world, a journey of self-exploration should be ongoing. “Aboriginal world views
incorporate ways of turning inward for the purpose of finding meanings through prayer, fasting, dream
interpretation, ceremonies and silence. Our ancestors left us these methods through the generational
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HEALING INTERGENERATIONAL TRAUMA
teachings that are passed on by our Elders and via our blood memories” (Baskin, 2019, “Towards an
Understanding”, para. 2). Whereas western worldviews are contradictory as it is patriarchal, reductive,
and views humans as the most important living organism. It focuses on scientific facts, there is only
one truth and it is based science and law. Western worldviews also center on objective reliability and
validity, and it believes that land is used for studying, and gaining profit (Levac, et al., 2018).
What it takes to Integrate Two Worldviews
Integrating traditional healing practices with mainstream practices has been recommended, and
debated by clinicians and scholars alike; however, there is no one agreed upon idea on how to achieve
this (Oulanova & Moodley, 2010). Duran states (as cited in Oulanova & Moodley, 2010) scholars and
clinicians have discussed the importance of methods and means of incorporating traditional and
western healing approaches. Aboriginal worldviews are holistic in nature and require great
understanding of historical and cultural context of Aboriginal people. Baskin and Sinclair state that
mainstream approaches implemented with Aboriginal approaches have to include Indigenous
worldviews and practices (Sinclair, 2007) . Integrating mainstream and Aboriginal healing approaches
requires extensive knowledge of Indigenous worldviews and mainstream healing methods.
Research by Nabigon and Wenger-Nabigon (2012) revealed that mainstream mental health
practitioners have no idea what constitutes best practices when integrating different models to treat
Aboriginal peoples (Nabigon & Wenger - Nabigon, 2012). It is known that integrating both western and
mainstream models can have potential success; as well, integrating models can be used for physical
illness. There is minimal academic research of the mental health professionals that have integrated
Aboriginal healing approaches (Oulanova & Moodley, 2010). Duran et al (1998) states that programs
that apply Indigenous epistemology as the root metaphor for theoretical and clinical practice, are
successful, additionally “once Indigenous knowledge and therapies are in place”, the process of
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HEALING INTERGENERATIONAL TRAUMA

integrating mainstream healing models is not such a difficult task (Duran, Duran, Yellow Horse Brave
Heart, & Yellow Horse - Davis, 1998, p. 350).
A culturally appropriate response to blend mainstream and western worldviews is to implement
the Two - Eyed Seeing approach, a term coined by Mi’kmaw Elder Albert Marshall however, it was the
late Chief Charles Labrador, Spiritual leader and healer, in his teachings that conceived this approach.
Iwama et al (as cited in Marsh et al, 2015) quoted Chief Charles Labrador “Go into the forest, you see
the birch, maple, pine. Look underground and all those trees are holding hands. We as people must do
the same” (Marsh, Coholic, Cote-Meek, & Najavits, 2015, p. 5). Two - eyed seeing requires a learned
skill of seeing the strengths of one worldview through one eye and see the strengths of the other
worldview from the other eye, and then learn to use both eyes together (Peltier, 2018). This approach
importantly acknowledges Indigenous Knowledge System as a distinct and whole system that can coexist with mainstream worldviews.
The concept of Two – Eyed Seeing is to integrate Indigenous and western healing approaches in
a respectful and heartfelt manner. Furthermore, Two-Eyed Seeing requires the teachings of antioppressive practices – inclusion, trust, respect, collaboration, understanding, and acceptance of the
strengths, that exist in both Western and Aboriginal worldviews. Two-Eyed Seeing allows for
collaboration and reciprocated cultural respect resulting in acknowledgement of the different
worldviews and how they can be beneficial. Moreover, the integration of mainstream and Indigenous
healing approaches may assist intergenerational trauma clients in discovering a sense of identity
(Marsh, Coholic, Cote-Meek, & Najavits, 2015).
Section 3: Interconnectedness: Restore, Reconnect, Recover & Reconcile
I propose a theoretical and practical framework that blends mainstream healing approaches with
Traditional cultural practices. This framework applies “Two-Eyed Seeing” as a guiding instrument to
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HEALING INTERGENERATIONAL TRAUMA

ensure respectful integration of both worldviews (Marsh, Coholic, Cote-Meek, & Najavits, 2015, p. 5).
The Interconnectedness -Restore, Reconnect, Recovery & Reconcile (Interconnectedness) model was
built off the foundation of a similar healing program. That healing program format wasn’t meant to be
intense as it was more of a family-oriented setting. The whole concept was to bring families together in
a culturally safe environment. Feedback from sharing and evaluations indicated there needed to be
more individualistic healing with a cultural context, as well as more in-depth healing approaches.
The Interconnectedness model was developed with the intention of addressing trauma related
issues. It is common knowledge that a majority of the Aboriginal peoples in this community are
dealing with intergenerational trauma and up to five generations have been identified. The careful and
thoughtful consideration to integrate traditional practices with mainstream methods is a respectful
approach to encourage participants to interact and engage in the whole process.
Considering the trauma endured, the ultimate impact of trauma originating from outside
Aboriginal communities caused an extensive range of dysfunctional behaviors including physical and
sexual abuse. The impact has been recycled through generation after generation, inside families and
communities. The perception then is healing must not only come from within individuals, healing is
required within and for the whole community. Duran states healing the community requires
commitment and patience nonetheless individual healing will start the process, which benefits future
generations “The tree takes over 100 years to grow, but the community planted them anyway. One
hundred years later, the descendants of those visionaries were able to enjoy the shade of a 100-mile
path” (Duran, Healing the Soul Wound: Counselling with American Indians and Other Natives, 2006, p.
123).
One of the main effects of intergenerational trauma was loss of culture, loss of family values,
and loss of identity. Identity is so integral to Aboriginal culture; therefore, it is vital to incorporate
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HEALING INTERGENERATIONAL TRAUMA
healing strategies into all aspects of identity. Marsh, Coholic,Cote – Meek & Najavits state “The key to
healing following the experience of residential school abuse and its intergenerational effects lies in the
area of reclaiming identity (Marsh, Coholic, Cote-Meek, & Najavits, 2015, p. 4). Marsh et al, claim
there is numerous researchers that believe reclaiming Indigenous identity will involve regaining
traditional knowledge and modify appropriately for present-day (Marsh, Coholic, Cote-Meek, &
Najavits, 2015). Developing such a profound and effective model requires extensive knowledge and
practice of both mainstream and Indigenous healing approaches as well as counselling experience. The
Interconnectedness model can be considered as an emerging practice as there is no empirical research;
however, that is not to say the methods used in this model are not evidence-based, from the process to
intervention:
Healing within a Canadian Aboriginal context refers to a cluster of ideas, activities, events,
initiatives and relationships, happening at every level from the individual to the inter-tribal. This
cluster has drawn widely on models and experiences from around the world, and is also
developing its own unique models, methods, language and analyses, many of which are just
beginning to enter mainstream dialogue. We can describe this cluster as the Aboriginal
"Healing Movement." (Lane Jr, Bopp, Bopp, & Norris, 2002, p. 23)
The first step would be to assess the needs of community, and identify what is not working and
more importantly what worked for healing approaches. The Canadian Government’s Report of the
Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (as cited in Lane Jr., Bopp, Bopp & Norris, 2002) “Healing,
in Aboriginal terms, refers to personal and societal recovery from the lasting effects of oppression and
systematic racism experienced over generations” (Lane Jr, Bopp, Bopp, & Norris, 2002, p. 5). Since
the early 1980s, numerous Aboriginal communities have fought to bring healing to their communities
in response to the overwhelming trauma caused by government policies. In most cases, the focus was
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HEALING INTERGENERATIONAL TRAUMA

on addressing the pattern of alcoholism that was destroying lives; it became apparent that alcohol and
drug abuse was only on the surface, there were many underlying issues to contend with. Underlying
issues of substance use, other addictive behaviors, and mental health issues is typically related to
trauma and in the case of Aboriginal peoples, Intergenerational trauma (Lane Jr, Bopp, Bopp, & Norris,
2002).
Digging deep will be one of the mottos that will be used throughout the process to encourage,
challenge and push participants to go beyond superficial problems. The concept behind digging deep is
for participants to go to the very core of self and identify pain that suppresses emotions, memories and
experiences, and recognize patterns that are not healthy or useful to them. Healing requires an
individual to be genuinely intent on taking the journey of self-discovery. It is a requirement to work on
problems that negatively affected personal growth, that includes an empathy deep enough to overcome
the devastation of disease. Healing is letting go of negative patterns and establish new healthy patterns
that allows for a more balanced lifestyle (Hill G. L., 2008). The modalities of healing will include
individual, pairs and group work, and each method are significant to the process, as healthy patterns of
individual, family and community life have been damaged. This goes back to the Indigenous
worldview that everyone and everything is interconnected. Each process and approach are designed to
stimulate participants to be honest and trusting, and reflective yet spontaneous. (see Appendix A.).
The first day will start off with the coordinator greeting participants at the designated location;
participants sign in and fill out registrations if they have not done so prior. Participants leave to meet at
another location close by for dinner. After dinner all participants meet at the central location of
gathering. Before introductions, the Elder opens with a Prayer, and smudging is offered to participants
and the team. The team ensures the safety and security of the participants, and environment is in place.
When looking at trauma related issues, it is imperative the first stage be to create a place of safety as
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HEALING INTERGENERATIONAL TRAUMA

participants require this to tell their story (Lane Jr, Bopp, Bopp, & Norris, 2002). The first process is
introductions, the team introduces themselves and what brought them to the room. Once the team is
finished introductions, the participants encouraged and supported to introduce self and share who they
are, why they are there and what they hope to get out of the time there. For participants that are hesitant
or holding back why they are there, the team members will challenge them to be honest and to trust
themselves and others. The rationale is that every second counts in their healing journey so don’t wait.
The intended outcome for participants is to overcome their fears and to be open, honest and trusting.
The second process is unpacking trauma; participants are supported through an exercise of
identifying unresolved trauma they have been carrying around. There is numerous literature on
Aboriginal people suffering many types of trauma as a result of colonization, Yellow Horse Brave
Heart, 2003 (as cited in Aguiar & Halseth, 2015) “responses to these types of trauma may include
substance abuse (to numb the pain), and other types of self-destructive behaviors, suicidal thoughts and
gestures, depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, anger and difficulty recognizing and expressing
emotions (Aguiar & Halseth, 2015, p. 8). The trauma or “soul wound” as Duran explains is an
ancestral wounding that happened in a community, and is been passed down from generation to
generation becoming more intense with each generation (Duran, Healing the Soul Wound: Counselling
with American Indians and Other Natives, 2006, p. 16). Counsellors, Elders, helpers support and
challenge participants to explore past and current trauma that is holding them back from living a
balanced lifestyle, and to break the cycle. The outcome of this process is to feel emotionally and
physically enlightened. Individuals participating in enlightening events such as cultural and social
processes that acknowledge past trauma can link current unhealthy behaviors to historic trauma. As
they continue to engage in these healing processes, participants will not only feel a sense of
empowerment, they start the healing within generations (Castellano & Archibald, 2007).
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Forgiveness is a process by which individuals can let go of shame, guilt and blame. Shame is a
feeling deep inside a person that causes the person to want to hide, and worries that they might become
exposed as the underlying fear is of rejection and abandonment. Every person experiences some type of
shame however some suffer at a deeper level. The longer shame is hidden, the angrier the person gets,
turning the anger internally (Middleton-Moz, 1990). Aboriginal people that have experienced
intergenerational trauma, with a history of abuse, can display shame behavior patterns that can develop
into other unhealthy behaviors, which continues onto following generations (Aguiar & Halseth, 2015).
For some people, forgiveness may seem impossible to even fathom due to the injustices they suffered,
yet it is a crucial piece to healing. Forgiving enables the person to let go of the painful memories (Lane
Jr, Bopp, Bopp, & Norris, 2002). Counselors, Elders and helpers support participants through a process
of identifying painful memories that hold them hostage to anger, guilt and blame, and to break free
from those chains. The rationale is to take their power back and the outcome is a feeling of
empowerment.
Transforming into the true self requires a person to remove masks that were protecting and
hiding them from fear. Middleton – Moz states, shame is a master of disguises, adults that have
suffered shame hide behind disguises. The mask a person hides behind reflects pieces of them that must
be denied, to bring healing (Middleton-Moz, 1990). There is a fear of what people will see when the
masks are removed. Susan Sparks suggests three benefits of removing masks: the first is to live life to
the fullest, the second is to release the burden of wearing the many masks that is tiring, and eventually
we forget our true self, and lastly removing masks will provide healing (Sparks, 2015). Wearing masks
permits a person to withhold parts of them in relationships. Revealing their authentic self can liberate
self to show their warrior spirit. Big Plume (as cited in St – Denis, 2016) “Many nations recognize
Warriors as symbols of the fighting spirit. Warriors seek to become powerful and strive to empower
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HEALING INTERGENERATIONAL TRAUMA

others. Warriors stand up for others especially when it is most difficult to do so. Bravery, defiance, and
the fighting spirit are key ingredients in the Warrior makeup” (St - Denis & Walsh, 2016, p. 11).
Counselors, Elders, and helpers help participants identify the different masks by confronting the fear
and beliefs they have of themselves. The rationale is to reveal their authentic self, and the outcome is to
revel in the feeling of liberation.
The circle is viewed as a sacred symbolism for Indigenous people of Canada. It is a closed
circle that involves all participants and permits open communication as they can see each other while
sharing. Sharing circles are opened with smudging, allowing participants to lift up their own prayers to
the Creator (Hill G. L., 2008). The sharing circle is a process of self-reflection and insight of processes.
The rationale is to speak from the heart and listen without interrupting and free of judgement, showing
respect and reciprocity. Team members encourage, support and prompt participants to talk about the
painful emotions by means of crying, talking, yelling, laughing, and even singing, for the sole purpose
of releasing the pain (Hill G. L., 2008).
Traditional healing ceremonies help to overcome mental, emotional and spiritual trauma and
promotes holistic healing (see Appendix B.). Traditional healing ceremonies are an essential
component to healing participants and, have evolved over the years. Traditional healers have adapted
their knowledge to overcome any challenges that they may encounter. Various Aboriginal practitioners
are drawing on blended traditions that integrate components of both traditional and contemporary
practices. Some of these blended practices are being introduced as "traditional," as they have become
integrated within the healing trend (Lane Jr, Bopp, Bopp, & Norris, 2002, p. 24).
Elders and traditional knowledge keepers are very important members of the team and to the
healing component. Throughout the day, prayers are offered to the Creator to guide the team to do all
they do with an open mind and heart, and for participants to open their minds and hearts to allow
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HEALING INTERGENERATIONAL TRAUMA

healing. Smudging is considered a traditional and sacred ceremony of Indigenous people. The mixture
of traditional medicine such as sage, juniper, cedar and tobacco are burning in smudge bowl and
offered to participants to use their hands to bring the smoke of the smudge to cover their body and offer
personal prayers to the Creator. The smudging is to cleanse the person and environment of negative
energy (Hill G. L., 2008).
Elders have such a calming presence and infinite wisdom, they are there to offer support
through Prayers, sharing experiences and knowledge, and listening. Traditional songs are sung for
appropriate purposes. Songs in the traditional language are Prayers for healing, hope and harmony.
Traditional ceremonies are gifted to specific people by Elders or through vision quests for specific
purposes, and following protocol, only that person can talk about the ceremony to maintain the
integrity of the teachings and respect for knowledge keepers (Quinn, 2019). Ceremony helps
participants to let go of pain and sorrow and give their burdens to the Creator to look after. All
traditional ceremonies are for the purpose of connecting to spirituality, culture and traditions, and to
accept, acknowledge and celebrate the blessings of Creator and creation.
The advantage of the Interconnectedness model is it can be facilitated by home grown
Counsellors, Helpers and Elders. “A “home – grown” context in which local community needs and
locally-indigenous cultural values and protocols form the foundation” (Lane Jr, Bopp, Bopp, & Norris,
2002). The counsellors might be from the community, or practice in the community. Elders are a
significant part of the team; they provide knowledge, support, culture and a calming presence. Helpers
are assistant leaders that have experience and knowledge of working in such a group, and have
undertaken their own healing journey. The team will be selected by their knowledge of cultural and
practical experiences, their worldviews and characteristics. Each individual on the team will be trained
to understand the emerging interactions, stimulate feedback from participants about behaviors, and
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address and promote change process. It is significant to the healing that participants have healthy meals,
snacks and plenty of water to provide nourishment for the mind, body and spirit, and prepared by a
caterer. The whole process is full of healing exercises that blend traditional and mainstream
approaches. All of the processes are meant to counteract the negative experience, with positive and
uplifting experiences. Each activity and approach are designed to stimulate participants to be honest,
trusting, reflective, spontaneous and participatory. The whole concept of Interconnectedness is to use
different approaches that are effective and appropriate for healing Intergenerational trauma:
……interrupting the intergenerational transmission of trauma will require approaches aimed not
only at treating the symptoms of this trauma, but will require the healing and rebuilding of
individuals, families and communities. A central component of this will be re-establishing pride and
a sense of individual and collective identity through “culture as treatment” activities. (Aguiar &
Halseth, 2015, p. 22).
Cognitive- Behavior Therapy
Cognitive-behavior therapy is an effective and evidence -based approach for various mental
health issues and once integrated with Indigenous healing practices, is appropriate as it addresses
spiritual aspects that are central in Aboriginal healing, and conventional therapy is designed to
explicitly address issues from an emotional and cognitive viewpoint. Cognitive behavioral therapy
offers tools that can change thoughts and feelings on how Aboriginal people view the world and adapt
new behaviors, as changing thought patterns will result in positive emotional and behavioral outcomes.
Research on best therapy approaches has shown Cognitive therapy was the preferred choice by
Aboriginal people, as it is collaborative and consistent with Aboriginal values (Heilbron & Julius
Guttman, 2000).

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Section 4: Models and Effective Approaches that correlate with Blending worldviews
There are other potential western and Indigenous healing frameworks that can be blended
together that will bring positive outcomes, when used appropriately. Beaulieu claims that certain
components of mainstream therapy congruent with Indigenous worldviews however, it is the
effectiveness of service delivery that is significant (Beaulieu, 2011).
Medicine Wheel as a Framework
The Medicine Wheel teachings concept can be used as a framework when applied to the
integration of Aboriginal healing and western healing, as the fundamental teaching is to bring balance
and harmony to one’s life. This traditional practice incorporates the physical, mental, spiritual and
emotional aspects of one’s personal life, and is a tool to help maintain a well-balanced lifestyle.
Similar to other traditional teachings, the belief is we are all interconnected and for harmony to exist,
all four quadrants of the medicine wheel must be in balance, therefore healing approaches must include
emotional, cognitive, social and physical functioning within a spiritual context (Nabigon, WengerNabigon, 2012; Menzies, 2010). When grounded in the teachings, it is a natural process for healers to
implement the process. Interconnectedness is a philosophy that Aboriginal people strongly believe in,
and evident in the healing aspect of their life journey (McCormick, 1997)
Gus Hill, an Indigenous associate professor at Wilfrid Laurier University developed a Holistic
Aboriginal Frame work for Individual Healing, a blending of Indigenous traditions with other teachings
and disciplines from other cultures (Hill G. , 2014). This framework is used as a guide and reference in
the medicine wheel I created for healing trauma. The medicine wheel is viewed as Indigenous holism,
and as you can see in Appendix C, the circle consists of the four cardinal directions, east, south, west
and north. The four colors represent the four human races, red, yellow, black and white. The four
aspects of self with balance and harmony is in the very center. Typically, the medicine wheel journey
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begins in the eastern door and moves clockwise in continual cycles of a lifelong journey of healing. It
is important to remember the self is interconnected to each part as well as being a part of the whole
(Hill G. L., 2008).
The eastern door represents spiritual healing, a connection with creator and creation. This is
where participants in Interconnectedness use prayer, smudging, Elders, ceremonies drumming and
celebration to learn to honor their spirit. Elders and spiritual helpers offer prayer, smudging and
traditional songs throughout the day to help participants on their journey, and to restore their physical,
mental, emotional and spiritual back to harmony. The southern door is one of emotional healing,
counselling. Elders and helpers help participants to reconnect to self by encouraging, supporting,
challenging, and pushing participants to partake in all activities and exercises. Each process is intended
for participants to get real and honest, to move past the denial and repression of the true and genuine
self. It is a time to be gentle and forgiving to self while acknowledging the deep-rooted pain and trauma
that can be hard to let go of.
The western door is that of recovery. Physical healing requires the four elements (air, water,
food and exercise) to be in balance. Throughout the day, participants are encouraged to have healthy
meals, three nutritious meals are provided; refreshments of fruit, juices and other healthy snacks are
provided at breaks; water is accessible at any time; and exercise through walking, moving and dancing
to keep them stimulated. The final door is the northern direction, and represents reconciliation, mental
healing, and involves memory work. The counsellors, Elders and helpers support clients through the
process of remembering the pain and shame of past traumas. Sharing circles allows for all participants
to share their story and learning from each other as their will be similarities as well as differences in
each story. Journal writing is quiet time for self-reflection and to gain insight of challenges, and
strengths they hold within themselves. Creative visualization is a process to help them come to terms of
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letting go and of forgiveness of self and others. This model is a process that blends Aboriginal healing
practices with mainstream healing methods, with the intention of bringing healing to individuals who
are struggling to let go of deep-rooted trauma – intergenerational trauma.
The activities and exercises will largely depend on the target group and their cultural beliefs,
thus requires having knowledge to ensure implementation and integration is done appropriately.
Activities and approaches can be modified when needed. An example is if one of the exercise processes
took longer than expected as the intention is for the whole group to experience and process emotions,
that version would be modified to finish in a timely matter as well as not take away from the initial
intention. It is significant that all participants feel included and that we do not cut them off or rush the
processes.
Narrative Therapy
Narrative therapy, a postmodern approach was developed in the 1980s by Michael White in
collaboration with David Epston in Australia and New Zealand (White, 2009). The ultimate premises
of Narrative therapy are about the stories people develop inside themselves and bear throughout their
life. Through their own experiences, clients seek to organize and give meaning to these stories of
experience, or the stories that have been placed on them. Stories influence how clients see themselves
and influence their thoughts, behaviors and actions (Brown, 2017). Additionally, clients typically carry
a dominant story, along with other stories that relate to everyday life. The dominant story interferes
with their life by imposing dominant discourses that results in internalizing oppression. The solution
then is to unpack the unhelpful stories and create new ones (counter-viewing) (Brown, 2017). My
personal experience as a young single mother of four children, on social assistance, and high school
drop-out, is one wherein I believed stories that others projected onto me. I had no motivation and
believed that I would never get off welfare. These stories carried shame and blame for myself and
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others. Externalization gave me the opportunity to use my voice to make sense of my story and separate
myself from the problems, allowing me to make positive changes. By unpacking these stories and
creating new and helpful stories I was able to move forward.
Narrative therapy as a practice model for Aboriginal healing approach is not only significant, it
is also appropriate as oral traditions were the main method of teaching for Aboriginal people.
According to Duran, it is through sharing and understanding of their stories that people can change the
narrative for a new beginning however, this healing process must include western healing approaches
and furthermore, historical issues must be addressed for any healing to be done. Furthermore,
storytelling is anti-oppressive when shared from an Indigenous perspective (Duran, Healing the Soul
Wound: Counselling with American Indians and Other Natives, 2006).
Narrative therapy was developed with three elements in mind, as well; a foundation is required
to build a relationship between the client and counsellor. The first principle is to respect and support the
client for their courage, second is presenting a non-blaming approach, and third is to be mindful of
position and power, recognizing the client is the expert of their own life stories. It makes sense to
explore the natural healing methods of a particular culture before applying foreign counselling styles
and approaches. To be helpful and effective, utilizing approaches that are connected to their worldviews
is a means of achieving success (Stewart, 2009). For many Aboriginal people culture is grounded in
oral tradition, and storytelling is vital to transmitting knowledge and healing of people.
“Traditional Aboriginal healing is very much the telling of a story. The narrative of one’s
experience and understanding is connected to the inner dialogue of the mind, body, emotions and
spirit and makes the connection between the client and healer” it is the personal telling of story, the
sharing of story with others, and oftentimes the receiving of storied teachings from Elders and/or
healers, that can facilitate an individual’s healing (Beaulieu, 2011, p. 43).
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Freeman explains the importance of storytelling with Native people. She states that it is
significant to Indigenous epistemology as this is how information is shared with Aboriginal cultures. It
is from the sharing of life experiences that allows the listener to connect in a way that is respectful.
Storytelling allows others to relate to the story that can help them in their healing, as well as build a
trusting relationship. Story telling can be used in individual counselling, group therapy, gathering and
workshops, and what is shared depends on the appropriateness of setting and participants (Freeman,
Soup Days and Colonization: Indigenous Pathways to Anti-Oppressive Practice, 2017). Rayle et al,
2006 (as cited in Beaulieu, 2011) proposed that narrative approaches in therapy are most suitable when
working with Aboriginal clients as oral tradition and emphasis on story and legend is representative of
many Indigenous cultures (Beaulieu, 2011).
Design and Methodology
The literature review used a qualitative approach, to explore, describe and examine data of the
research topic. As well, the Two – Eyed Seeing approach was used for “learning to see from one eye
with the strengths of Indigenous Knowledges and ways of knowing, and from the other eye with the
strengths of Western Knowledges and ways of knowing ….and learning to use both these eyes together,
for the benefit of all” (Reid, Greaves, & Kirby, 1949, p. 35). Data was organized using a grounded
theory method. A combination of keywords was entered in several academic websites as well as
researching peer, and non-peer reviewed journal and other relevant research. I focused my research on
North America, and on blending or integrating Indigenous healing approaches and western healing
methods. I saved all relevant literature to review, and eliminated the articles that were irrelevant to the
purpose of my research. The literature review helped inform the author of any current research, gaps
and limitations.

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Thematic findings
The literature review was conducted to explore how intergenerational trauma affects Aboriginal
peoples, and what is not working in the mainstream mental health arena, and why it is not effective,
what it takes to have effective and successful healing methods, and finally, how will blending
Traditional Indigenous knowledge and Western healing methods improve the long-term success of
healing intergenerational trauma. The finding of the literature for each research question and sub
questions is revealed in three themes for the question and each sub question.
How intergenerational trauma affects Aboriginal people?
The phenomena of intergenerational trauma (also known as historical trauma transmission,
collective trauma, transgenerational grief, historic grief and soul wounding) has affected generations of
Aboriginal families. Gagne, (1998) (as cited in Menzies, 2010) associated the Indian residential schools
to the intergenerational trauma encountered by Aboriginal people (Menzies, 2010). The
implementation of Indian residential schools left Aboriginal people a legacy of shame and devastation.
The physical, sexual and spiritual abuse students suffered at the hands of those that were meant to care
for them was so horrific, it would leave emotional scars that would create a “Soul Wound” a term
coined by Duran (Duran, Healing the Soul Wound: Counselling with American Indians and Other
Natives, 2006, p. 15). “Native idea of historical trauma involves the understanding that the trauma
occurred in the soul or spirit” (Duran, Healing the Soul Wound: Counselling with American Indians
and Other Natives, 2006, p. 7).
When intergenerational trauma is not healed in previous generations, it is inadvertently passed down to
subsequent generations and unfortunately becomes increasingly severe with each generation (Duran,
Healing the Soul Wound: Counselling with American Indians and Other Natives, 2006). Aboriginal
people suffered many losses due to past atrocities forced on them at Indian residential schools. The
32

HEALING INTERGENERATIONAL TRAUMA

losses suffered were loss of identity, loss of cultural identity loss of familial and community ties, and
loss of culture and traditions (Goforth, 2006). The multiple mental health issues that have arisen from
intergenerational trauma were plentiful. Some of the mental health issues that emerged are depression,
substance abuse, addictions, eating disorders, PTDS anxiety, depression (Menzies, 2010). Suffice to
say, the researchers agree intergenerational trauma is one of the main origins of mental health
challenges (Menzies, 2010; Castellano & Archibald, 2007; Aguiar & Halseth, 2015; Quinn, 2019).
What is not working in the mental health arena, and why is it not effective?
Scholars have identified mental health healing methods is not helping Indigenous people. Some
of the reason cited are that they are “inappropriate”, inadequate”, and “ineffective”. Mental health
professional must consider mental health within the context of historical injustices (colonization,
residential schools,) when treating Aboriginal people. Research on Indigenous historical trauma
compounds historical events, minimizing the trauma to a “uniform transhistorical/cultural
phenomenon” (Kirmayer, Gone, & Moses, 2014, p. 331) Indigenous historical behaviors has been
compared to Jewish holocaust survivors by Braveheart and DeBruyn (as cited in Kirmayer et al, 2014),
however it is significant to acknowledge the Jewish holocaust descendants are faring far better than
their parents. Compared to Aboriginal people, the social and mental health issues have only increased
in the years, implying that intergenerational trauma is in fact the cause of mental and social health
problems (Kirmayer, Gone, & Moses, 2014).
Aboriginal people are considered to have low socioeconomic status, and because they are on
the lower rank of what is considered wealthy, they most probably receive poor quality mental health
service (Duran, Healing the Soul Wound: Counselling with American Indians and Other Natives,
2006). Canadian Aboriginal people have stated they are not receiving the same level of services as nonAboriginal people (Beaulieu, 2011). The DSM manual has received criticism and additionally it has
33

HEALING INTERGENERATIONAL TRAUMA

been deemed as a flawed assessment tool for one, it promotes a reductionist approach, which
encourages clinicians to overlook any underlying causes of behavior, and jump to a diagnosis.
Moreover, there is no consideration for cultural, social and political events such as colonization, which
produced intergenerational trauma. There is no reference to intergenerational trauma, the closest
diagnosis is Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTDS) and this diagnosis overlooks the role of culture,
intergenerational and community trauma, Waldram, (as cited in Menzies, 2010).
What it takes to have effective and successful healing methods?
Mainstream healing methods blended with Indigenous healing approaches must include
Indigenous worldviews and practices in order to be effective, appropriate and successful (Sinclair,
2007). Programs that apply Indigenous knowledge as the root metaphor for theoretical and clinical
practice can be successful and when this is established, the process of integrating Indigenous and
western healing approaches will take less effort (Duran, Duran, Yellow Horse Brave Heart, & Yellow
Horse - Davis, 1998).
Two-eyed seeing approach is a culturally appropriate response to integrate Indigenous
worldviews and western worldviews. The Two -Eyed Seeing approach was coined by Mi’kmaw Elder
Albert Marshall. This approach requires a skill of seeing the strengths of Aboriginal worldviews from
one eye and western worldviews from the other eye, and then bringing them together to see from both
eyes (Marsh, Coholic, Cote-Meek, & Najavits, 2015). This Two-Eyed Seeing model appears to be the
most suitable approach for integrating Indigenous and Western worldviews as it is anti-oppressive in
nature, and the collaboration of both worldviews will benefit Aboriginal people on their healing path
(Marsh, Coholic, Cote-Meek, & Najavits, 2015). Additionally, blending indigenous and mainstream
healing practices is significant to implement positive change within the Canadian health system as

34

HEALING INTERGENERATIONAL TRAUMA
recommended in the Truth and Reconciliation Commission’s Call to Action (2015) (Rogers, et al.,
2019).
How will blending Traditional Indigenous knowledge and Western healing methods improve
the long-term success of healing intergenerational trauma?
When effective elements of mainstream mental health are identified, the next step would be to
consider a more viable approach that allows for the integration. It has been noted that western healing
methods is not working for Aboriginal people accessing services, and “given the complexity of health,
particularly mental health challenges, among many Indigenous communities today, traditional services
alone may not be adequate to address new or contemporary mental health problems” (Beaulieu, 2011,
p. 55). The collaboration of Indigenous and mainstream worldviews when used appropriately will
provide various options for the client (Beaulieu, 2011). The integration of Indigenous and Western
healing approaches and methods will allow Aboriginal people to reconnect to their culture
consequently improving self-worth (Quinn, 2019). Overall, in this day and age, it appears that it will
take more than one or the other differing healing approaches to suit Aboriginal people. Both Indigenous
healing practices and mainstream mental health have effective methods and when integrated, will
vastly improve the lives of Aboriginal people.
Gaps, limitations and implications
There is minimal training and knowledge of Aboriginal worldviews and cultural practices
therefore practitioners do not understand how Indigenous knowledge connects to healing. “ While
integrated programs have begun to grow in number, and the call for integrated services continue to
strengthen, what is glaringly absent from this integrative movement are the voices of Indigenous Elders
and healers themselves” (Beaulieu, 2011, p. 4). For Aboriginal people to reconnect and recover their
traditional knowledge it would require teaching and learning, however there is a lack of resources to
35

HEALING INTERGENERATIONAL TRAUMA

implement lack of resources to recover and revitalize their language and culture (Marsh, Coholic, CoteMeek, & Najavits, 2015). One of the main limitations of conducting a literature review is not having a
direct connection to the very people that were affected by intergenerational trauma, and may have been
impacted from the blending of Indigenous and Western healing approaches.
One of the challenges for traditional healing is western worldviews and policies regarding
traditional healing require policies to be revised as they are outdated (Robbins & DeWar, 2011, p. 8).
As well Duran (as cited in Beaulieu, 2011) stated when mental health professionals continue to impose
western worldviews on client, the oppression continues. Braun et al (as cited in Rogers eta al, 2019)
states “Indigenous knowledge is largely absent from Canadian research, policy and practice because its
methodologies do not fit within the positivist paradigm” (Rogers, et al., 2019, p. 9). Another challenge
is the lack of respect and value for indigenous knowledge (Rogers, et al., 2019), and traditional healing
is conveyed as if it was a thing in the past (Robbins & DeWar, 2011).
Section 4: Conclusion
The purpose of this literature review was to explore current peer-reviewed research and some
non – current relevant literature on blending Indigenous healing approaches and mainstream healing
methods that are effective in treating deep rooted trauma caused by intergenerational transmissions. It
is well documented that Aboriginal people have been impacted by colonialism. Policies such as the
Indian Act implemented Indian residential schools causing horrendous trauma that would
unintentionally be passed down from generation to generation. This research implies mental health
practitioners, policy makers, and scholars must acknowledge, accept and appreciate there is other
worldviews besides western worldview. When Aboriginal people or Indigenous knowledge is involved,
it is vital to build relationships, as well as to show respect. This act will involve gaining knowledge of
the historical context as it relates to social and cultural issues. Scholars, practitioners have to
36

HEALING INTERGENERATIONAL TRAUMA

acknowledge there is underlying issues that need to be addressed and healed for example look at the
cause of addictions, depression, and violence. Individuals, families, communities require healing to end
the ongoing “trauma” that causes internal oppression. When individuals take the initiative to begin
healing their trauma, it can have a ripple effect on family and community members
To be effective in blending Indigenous healing practices and western healing approaches will
take a sincere effort on Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal practitioners, and Indigenous knowledge
keepers. Indigenous knowledge and healing approaches have been here since time immemorial, it is
time for mainstream mental health professionals and scholars to acknowledge and validate indigenous
knowledge. A proposed healing approach Interconnectedness was put forward as a recommendation
for blending Indigenous healing approaches and western healing methods. This approach encompasses
both Indigenous knowledge and mainstream healing methods, creating a holistic healing experience.
My motive for researching this topic is due to my interest and belief how intergenerational trauma
affects Aboriginal people, as well as how effective the blending of Indigenous Knowledge and Western
healing methods are. There are many benefits of blending the two worldviews when done appropriately,
and this can be done utilizing the Two-eyed Seeing Approach. I was surprised at the amount of
research, however most of the research was more than nine years old. I can only hope there will be
current research on the topic that will include Aboriginal people as researchers and participants, to get a
clearer representation. As a First Nation woman, practitioner, and Kúkwa7, my vision is for a collective
healing for Aboriginal people.

37

HEALING INTERGENERATIONAL TRAUMA

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Appendix A
Overview of Interconnectedness Process
Process
Opening/Introductions

Approach
Encourage, support
and challenge
participants to share
who they are, where
they are coming from
and why they are
there

Rationale
Every second counts
in our healing journey
so don’t wait

Outcome
Overcome Fears. Be
honest. Trust yourself.

Unpacking trauma

A Process of letting
go of past trauma

Feel emotionally and
physically enlightened

Forgiveness

A Process of letting
go of shame and
blame
A Process of letting
go of hiding behind
masks
A process of selfreflection and insight

Explore past trauma
and how it affects
them is not as painful
as continuing to carry
the trauma
Take their power
back
Show their authentic
self

Feel liberated to be true
to self and others

Talking and listening
from the heart is
showing respect and
reciprocity

Gain inner strength and
courage by speaking
your truth

Transform true self

Sharing Circle

Feel Empowered

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HEALING INTERGENERATIONAL TRAUMA

Appendix B
Overview of Interconnectedness Process
Indigenous Culture
Prayers

Approach
Elder offers Prayers
throughout the day

Smudging

Burn sacred herbs (cedar,
juniper and sage) in a
smudge bowl and using your
hands or feather to move the
smoke over your whole body
Elders are there to support in
every way
 Prayers
 Sharing (experiences
& knowledge)
 Listening
Elder or traditional
knowledge keeper offers
songs in traditional language

Elders

Traditional Songs

Traditional
Ceremonies

Traditional ceremonies are
gifted to specific people to
use for specific purposes, and
only they will talk about the
ceremony

Rationale
Prayers to Creator for
guidance in our daily
life
Cleansing the person
and environment of
negative energy

Outcome
Connect to Spirituality
and know everything is
interconnected
Connect to culture and
develop positive ways
to deal with negativity

Elders are good
medicine; they have a
calming presence and
infinite wisdom

Connect to traditional
teachings (ways of
being and knowing) and
identify Elders in
community (for
additional support)
Connect to your spirit
through language and
song, and drumbeat

Songs in the traditional
language are like
Prayers, and give
participants renewed
energy and hope
Help participants to let
go and give burdens to
Creator

Accept, acknowledge
and celebrate the
Blessings of ceremony
to help heal the
emotions, mind, body
and spirit

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HEALING INTERGENERATIONAL TRAUMA

Appendix C
Medicine Wheel Framework

46