INCREASING THE NUMBER OF POLICEWOMEN THROUGH JOB
ADVERTISEMENTS AND RECRUITMENT METHODS
by
Cheyenne A. Slonowski
Bachelor of Arts (Honours), University of Manitoba, 2018
MAJOR PAPER SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL
FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF ARTS (CRIMINAL JUSTICE)
In the
School of Criminology and Criminal Justice
© Cheyenne Slonowski 2020
UNIVERSITY OF THE FRASER VALLEY
Winter 2020
All rights reserved. This work may not be
reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy
or other means, without permission of the author.

i

Approval

Name: Cheyenne Slonowski
Degree: Master of Arts (Criminal Justice) Degree
Title: Increasing the Number of Policewomen through Job Advertisements and Recruitment
Methods

Examining Committee
Amanda McCormick
GPC Chair
Director, School of Criminology and Criminal Justice

____________________________________________________________
Irwin Cohen
Senior Supervisor
Associate Professor, School of Criminology and Criminal Justice

____________________________________________________________
Zina Lee
Second Reader
Associate Professor, School of Criminology and Criminal Justice

____________________________________________________________

Date Defended/Approved: ______April 28, 2020_____________________________________

ii

Abstract
How to increase diversity within policing is a question that has received substantial
political and media attention in recent years. The ideal police applicant and the qualities sought
have transformed alongside social changes, shifts in police work, and cultural variations. While
many of these changes have created more opportunities for women, females remain
underrepresented in the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP). As such, it is important to
examine ways police organizations in Canada can entice more females to apply. One area of
particular interest is the recruitment process, specifically the recruitment material developed. By
exploring the existing literature and utilizing several theoretical models, this preliminary study
describes the value of diversity within the professional context of policing, identifies how
policies and recruitment methods have changed and outcomes of these changes, and explains
how job postings may contribute to keeping the number of women low in the field of policing.
Based on this assessment, practical recommendations are provided to develop effective
advertisements to increase the number of women who apply to the RCMP.

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Acknowledgements
I would like to begin by thanking my wonderful family and friends, without whom I would not
have been able to complete this program. I am especially grateful for the continuous patience,
consideration, and love I received from my mom, dad, and sister.
I also want to acknowledge my supervisor, Dr. Irwin Cohen for his thoughtful feedback and
guidance. He was always available to answer questions and provide help and support.
Additionally, I appreciate the faculty at UFV and my fellow master’s cohort members for their
encouragement, knowledge, and expertise enabling me to learn about and explore numerous
topics.
I would finally like to thank everyone else who has helped me along the way, whether that be
through accommodation, making connections, providing advice, or helping me move an
outrageous amount of times.

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Table of Contents
Abstract................................................................................................................................. iv
Acknowledgements............................................................................................................... v
List of Tables….................................................................................................................... vii
List of Figures….................................................................................................................. viii
Introduction............................................................................................................................ 1
The Importance of Workplace Diversity................................................................................ 3
Theoretical Framework........................................................................................................... 7
Police Policies and Programs................................................................................................. 14
Historical Ideals...................................................................................................................... 17
Shifting Perceptions............................................................................................................... 24
Project Methodology.............................................................................................................. 27
Changes in Recruitment Message and Imaging .................................................................... 29
Advertisement Recommendations to Increase the Number of Women in the RCMP........... 37
Articulate Clearly What the RCMP has to Offer Women ......................................... 38
Fit is Fundamental...................................................................................................... 41
Woman-Centred Wording.......................................................................................... 44
Messenger Characteristics.......................................................................................... 44
Recruitment Location................................................................................................. 46
Effective Internet Use................................................................................................. 47
Create a Sense of Belonging....................................................................................... 48
Research Limitations............................................................................................................... 49
Conclusion............................................................................................................................... 51
Appendices.............................................................................................................................. 54
Bibliography............................................................................................................................ 62

v

List of Tables
Table 1: Number of Images from Each Year................................................................................... 28

vi

List of Figures
Figure 1: Number of Canadian Female Officers by Rank.......................................................... 24

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Introduction
How to increase diversity within policing is a question that has received substantial
political and media attention in recent years (James et al., 2017). Previous studies on police
diversity in Canada, the United States of America, and the United Kingdom have largely focused
on differentiations in gender, age, race, and educational level, without noting what policies,
movements, or social structures have contributed to these differences in the contemporary period
(Davies & Thomas, 2003; Hong 2016; Milgram, 2002; O’Connor, 2008; Theobald & HaiderMarkel, 2009). One of the important issues to understand is what motivates people to apply to
become a police officer and what might be some of the barriers experienced by those who choose
not to apply for a career in policing, even though they have the necessary skills, knowledge,
experience, and interest to become an excellent police officer. One area of particular interest is
the recruitment process, specifically the recruitment material developed to entice people from
diverse communities to apply to the police. This is an important area to understand because
recruiting advertisements are an important signaling device for potential job applicants (James et
al., 2017). Recruitment advertising can be the first source of information about the type of job
being offered and can signal to people what the organization is looking for and who is the type of
person the organization is interested in hiring (Feldman, Bearden, & Hardesty, 2006).
With the introduction and implementation of community policing in Canada, many police
organizations have had to redefine the role of the police officer from one that was strictly
focused on reacting to crime to one that sought to identify and address recurring problems that
affected public safety (Workman-Stark, 2015). With the adoption of this model of policing, the
required skills and qualities of an ideal police candidate changed from “hyper-masculine
attributes, such as strength, power, and authority; to those perceived as feminine, such as

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communication, empathy, compassion, trust, and relationship building” (Workman-Stark, 2015,
p. 764).
In addition to shifts in models of policing, changes within the composition of police
organizations in Canada have also been motivated by several external factors, such as federal
legislation, lawsuits, financial incentives, and the availability of federal grants that require police
organizations to meet specific quotas for hiring and promoting women and other minority groups
(Workman-Stark, 2015). While many of these changes have encouraged and created more
opportunities for women, females remain underrepresented in some policing organizations
(Workman-Stark, 2015). Statistics Canada presented data that showed that in the last 32 years,
the number of female officers has increased from 16.2% in 1986 to 42.3% in 2018 (Statistics
Canada, 2020). However, as of 2018, only 21.6% of regular RCMP members were female
(RCMP, 2018). Although increasing the number of female applicants to the police does not
always result in more women being hired, when the female applicant pool is substantially
increased, police agencies typically hire more female recruits (Milgram, 2002). Given this, it is
important to examine the ways that the police in Canada are trying to entice more females to
apply to the police.
A variety of factors, such as high physical agility requirements, a preference for veterans
who have served in the military, and the requirement to relocate to participate in police basic
training can screen women out of the process (Milgram, 2002). However, a detailed
consideration of these issues is not the focus of this major paper. Rather than examining the
recruitment process per se, this major paper focuses on examining the messaging used to attract
new recruits into police organizations through an examination of the RCMP’s advertising posters
(Milgram, 2002). This major paper will exclusively examine how job postings may contribute to

2

keeping the number of women low in the field of policing. More specifically, this major paper
will focus on what type of recruitment advertisements are likely most effective at generating a
more diverse workforce, specifically with reference to increasing the number of women in
policing. The particular focus of this major paper will be on how the Royal Canadian Mounted
Police (RCMP) can attract and retain more female candidates through their recruitment material.
In effect, the question this major paper seeks to address is how the RCMP can increase the
number of women who apply to the police through the RCMP’s use of advertisements and job
postings.
While a significant amount is known about the value of diversity in general and
specifically in policing, less is known about how to actually attain and retain diversity in
policing. As such, this major paper has three main goals. The first goal is to describe the value of
diversity within the professional context of policing while identifying the historical challenges
the RCMP has faced in attempting to achieve this objective. The second goal focuses on how the
RCMP can address this issue by analyzing how the RCMP currently presents itself to women
through its marketing materials. The third goal of this major paper is to provide practical
recommendations on how job advertisements and recruitment methods can be improved to
increase the number of women who see themselves as having a fulfilling career in the RCMP.

The Importance of Workplace Diversity
Workplace diversity is a holistic concept that denotes the complex physical, sociological,
and psychological differences that exist between people and groups working within an
organization (Eboh, Asiah, Abubakar, & Doko, 2018). These distinctions include physical
attributes, such as gender, race, and ethnicity, as well as non-physical attributes, such as

3

education, sexual orientation, socioeconomic background, and religious or political beliefs (Eboh
et al., 2018; Hajro, Gibson, & Pudelko, 2017). Members within particular diverse groups often
share particular world views, norms, values, goals, priorities, rules, meanings, language, and
communication styles (Hajro, Gibson, & Pudelko, 2017).
The argument for workplace diversity is multifaceted. It is about the recognition and
appreciation of the uniqueness and contribution of each individual’s distinct set of characteristics
to the team or the organization (Mazibuko & Govender, 2017). For the most part, researchers
have acknowledged the benefits of diversity, such as innovative ideas, increased creativity and
productivity, and improved critical thinking and problem-solving skills (Eboh et al., 2018).
Diversity also has the ability to unite the collaborative strengths and inherent weaknesses of
employees (Eboh et al., 2018). Researchers have argued that organizations that encourage
diversity have demonstrated superior performance (Mazibuko & Govender, 2017). For example,
diverse police organizations are often perceived as being more trustworthy and fairer (Riccucci,
Van Ryzin, & Lavena, 2014; James et al., 2017), are correlated with less crime in their
jurisdiction (Hong, 2016), and have higher rates of reporting traditionally under-reported crimes,
like sexual assault (Meier & Nicholson-Crotty 2006; James et al., 2017). The benefits of having
female officers, including increased legitimacy, higher reporting of sexual assault, and less
aggressive and confrontational behaviours, such as threats, use of force, the use of physical
restraint, searches, and arrests, are well researched and documented (Brown & Woolfenden,
2011; Meier & Nicholson-Crotty, 2006; Silvestri, 2015; Rabe-Hemp, 2008). Additionally,
female police officers tend to possess better communication skills than their male counterparts.
This ability to communicate effectively is associated with fewer citizen complaints (Lonsway,
Moore, Harrington, Smeal, & Spillar, 2003). Moreover, a study by Meier and Nicholson-Crotty

4

(2006) found that, “police forces with larger percentages of women officers filed more reports of
sexual assault, arrested more suspects for sexual assault, and arrested more suspects for rape,
even after controlling for the increase in reports” (Meier & Nicholson-Crotty, 2006, p. 858).
Having a diverse police organization is not only important to the employer, but propitious
for the public (Anderson, Plecas, & Segger, 2001). Greater diversity enables an organization to
better adapt to change, increases innovation and creativity, and addresses the needs and concerns
of a diverse client base (McNab & Johnson, 2002). Diversity can also positively change the
behaviours, attitudes, and perceptions of citizens (Hong, 2016). A diverse police organization
can directly affect the public’s perception of its legitimacy when it reflects the diversity within
society (James et al., 2017; Riccucci et al. 2014). This is because citizens’ perceived notions
about bureaucratic legitimacy are positively affected if the identity of the bureaucrat matches that
of society (Riccucci et al., 2014).
The gender of a police officer may also affect and shape citizen’s actions and attitudes
when interacting with police (Meier & Nicholson-Crotty, 2006). Symbolic representation works
cognitively on the group that is being represented. For example, women are more likely to
recognize police actions as legitimate when the organization is comprised of female officers or if
female officers are present (Riccucci et al., 2014; Theobald & Haider-Markel, 2009). Similarly,
women are more willing to cooperate with police, especially in cases of domestic violence, when
women are represented or present (Riccucci et al., 2014). These examples highlight the
importance of representation in bureaucratic agencies, particularly police organizations.
Police representativeness and representation are correlated with a reduction in public
allegations of corruption and increased public perceptions of reliability and fairness (Hong,
2016). In a 2016 UK study, Hong suggested that increasing the number of ethnic minority police

5

officers was also correlated with a significant decrease in the number of crimes within the
associated police jurisdictional area (Hong, 2016). Diversity also has the potential to alleviate the
institutionalized practice of officers acting on assumptions surrounding visible minorities being
inherently more unlawful than white people (Hong, 2016). By knowing people from diverse
groups, preconceived notions of particular groups can be reduced. For instance, respectful
interactions are associated with positive identity formation and reduction of status and power
differentials (Lee, Mazmanian, & Perlow, 2020). This can create dialogue surrounding genderbased issues, hear lived experiences, counter stereotypical myths, and combat implicit biases.
Therefore, diversity supports a greater discourse around justice and reduces tensions within an
organization. Subsequently, the organizational integrity and ethical climate can improve with
respect to the staff’s treatment of minority groups (Hong, 2016).
Furthermore, a more representative police organization may increase the willingness of
minority populations within it to cooperate in the co-production of public values and
organizational goals (Hong, 2016). Greater representativeness has been associated with improved
integrity, fostering a more ethical climate, and has had a positive influence on bureaucrats’
attitudes and behaviours when interacting with minority populations (Hong, 2016). However, it
must be acknowledged that some research on whether diversity leads to improved performance
has produced inconsistent conclusions (Mazibuko & Govender, 2017). In such cases, it has been
argued that performance was contingent on whether the organization’s environment fostered
trust and mutual support (Mazibuko & Govender, 2017). Still, the general consensus in the
literature is that a more diverse civil service enables the government to more accurately reflect
and better serve the needs of a diverse public (James et al., 2017).

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Theoretical Framework
The decision to apply for a particular job is influenced by a variety of factors, such as
recruiter characteristics, the expectation they will be hired, and perceived fit (Chapman,
Uggerslev, Carroll, Piasentin, & Jones 2005). Thus, many theories contribute to understanding
the most effective recruitment methods for police. The four leading theoretical frameworks that
help identify reasons for the lack of diversity in policing are the Attraction–Selection–Attrition
paradigm, Person-Environment Fit Paradigm, Objective Factor Theory, and Social Dominance
Theory.
Many elements affect an applicant’s attraction to a particular job or position. One of the
most common measures is an applicant’s opinion of the overall personal attractiveness of the
prospective job or organization (Chapman et al., 2005). The most fundamental model used to
address attractiveness is the Attraction–Selection–Attrition (ATA) paradigm developed by
Schneider (1987) and later expanded on by Perry and Wise (1990). Within the ATA paradigm, it
is argued that people with higher public service motivation (PSM) are more likely to be
employed in public service professions because it is public service itself that attracts them to the
position or organization (Linos, 2018; Perry & Wise, 1990; Schneider, 1987). PSM is the idea
that individuals are drawn to the public domain with intentions to do good for others and society
(Perry, Hondeghem, & Wise, 2010). Within this framework, it is argued that the greater an
individual’s public service motivation, the higher the probability that they will seek membership
in a public organization, such as policing (Perry et al., 2010). Perry and Wise (1990) defined
PSM as “an individual’s predisposition to respond to motives grounded primarily or uniquely in
public institutions and organizations” (Perry & Wise, 1990, p. 368). This definition incorporates
motives, such as civic duty and compassion (Perry et al., 2010). Individuals with high PSM may

7

already be inclined to apply to become a police officer. However, focusing solely on PSM
messages is ineffective at attracting applicants that would have not applied anyway (Linos,
2018). In fact, PSM messages alone do not necessarily attract more people to policing (Linos,
2018). Therefore, it is essential that potential candidates’ characteristics, needs, and values are
included in advertisement to encourage them to take the next step and apply.
The ATA model suggests that applicants seek a fit with their personal characteristics,
needs, and values (Chapman et al., 2005). This fit can include the type of work and the perceived
work environment (Chapman et al., 2005). This choice is influenced by the compatibility of their
individual identity and disposition, and organizational characteristics that would satisfy their
prosocial and altruistic orientation (Perry et al., 2010; Perry & Wise, 1990). Thus, it is a central
component of the selection process (Linos, 2018; Perry & Wise, 1990; Schneider, 1987). That
being said, whether an organization will fit an applicant’s characteristics, needs, and values is an
individualized decision. What attracts one individual may not attract another. Therefore, it is
imperative that individual variation be considered and organizations research what
characteristics, needs, and values are prominent in the communities they police. Once
determined, these attributes should be presented in various ways in their recruitment
advertisements.
This segues into the Person-Environment Fit Paradigm. How an organization presents
itself throughout the recruitment process, and particularly the job advertisement, heavily
influences an individual’s perceptions of fit (Linos, 2018). Perceived fit can have a significant
level of cognitive manipulation since the assessment and weighting scheme applied is completed
within the applicant’s mind (Kristof-Brown, Zimmerman, & Johnson, 2005). Thus, one of the

8

strongest predictors of an applicant’s attraction to a position is the perception of fit (Chapman et
al., 2005 & Linos, 2018).
Person-Environment (P-E) fit assesses the congruence or perceived fit between an
individual and their work environment (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005; Perry et al., 2010). At the
broadest level, this includes the vocation or occupation (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005). Fit can be
understood as similarity, need–satisfaction, or demand–ability match. It can also include
compatible skills, needs, preferences, values, personality traits, goals, and attitudes within a job
and an individual (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005). For instance, individuals are more likely to apply
for a job they believe they have the skills for to one they believe they do not (Gaucher et al.,
2011).
The P-E fit paradigm is comprised of two factors: complementary fit and supplementary
fit (Cable & Edwards, 2004). Complementary fit focuses on the ability of the person or
organization to provide what the other wants or needs (Cable & Edwards, 2004). For instance, a
potential applicant may have a skill set or characteristics that policing requires or the policing
occupation offers what the potential applicant is seeking (Cable & Edwards, 2004). Person
characteristics refer to the biological and psychological needs, values, goals, abilities, and
personality of the potential applicant, whereas organizational characteristics include the intrinsic
or extrinsic rewards, physical or psychological demands, cultural values, and environmental
conditions of the job (Cable & Edwards, 2004). In this sense, advertisements can provide cues if
an individual will belong in a given organization. Consequently, if advertisements are not
diverse, underrepresented individuals, such as women and ethnic minority applicants, may be
more likely to question their fit within the organization (James et al., 2017). This is important for
policing because women tend to focus more on how job characteristics fit and less on the

9

perceived fairness of the recruitment process than men when determining the attractiveness of a
job or organization (Chapman et al., 2005). This exemplifies the importance of diverse actors in
advertisements as women may feel a stronger fit when they see other individuals like them
represented on job postings.
An individual may also use the selection process to determine supplementary fit (Cable &
Edwards, 2004; James et al., 2017). Supplementary fit exists when a person and an organization
have similar characteristics or value congruence. Value congruence is the similarity between an
individual’s values and those of the organization (Cable & Edwards, 2004). For example, an
employee and the organization may both consider autonomy important, thus creating value
congruence (Cable & Edwards, 2004). The self-selection process encompasses matching the
needs of an applicant with the organizational climate and its ability to satisfy those needs (Saks,
Wiesner, & Summers, 1994). People typically search for job opportunities that fit their
knowledge, skills, abilities, personal needs, and interests. Given that some individuals are unable
to determine their fit for the position without specific information, potential applicants may be
less inclined to apply for positions if they are unsure what the job entails. Thus, general
advertisements with minimal information may leave potential applicants with the perception that
the advertised job may be unsuitable for them (Feldman et al., 2006).
Personal compatibility and suitability are not the only factors that must be considered.
Although potential applicants may be drawn to organizational characteristics depicted in an
advertisement, they may also contemplate if they desire what the organization is offering.
Potential applicants frequently make inferences from the information presented in job
advertisements (Feldman et al., 2006). Recruiting variables, such as pay, type of work, and

10

organizational image, can change an applicant’s attitude towards the job and organization
(Chapman et al., 2005).
Both intrinsic and extrinsic needs of a potential applicant must be considered. For
example, job security, career advancement, and benefits are all strong motivators (Linos, 2018).
Objective Factor theorists Behling, Labovitz, and Gainer (1968) predicted that an applicant
would select a job mainly on their evaluation of both the position attributes and organizational
characteristics. The attributes considered include job specifics, such as pay, benefits, and the type
of work portrayed, as well as the characteristics that reflect the organization, such as company
image, policies, size, work environment, and location (Chapman et al., 2005). Therefore,
including statements about the organization’s equal opportunity policy can enhance the
attractiveness of an organization to women and those of other diverse groups (McNab &
Johnson, 2002).
Lastly, Social Dominance Theory (SDT) is key when determining the most effective
recruitment marketing techniques. The nature of an individual’s work is associated with their
well-being and social status. By institutionalizing types of jobs to distinct social groups, societies
create and maintain group-based social dominance (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). SDT is focused on
the notion of group-based social hierarchy within societies. SDT maintains that there is one or a
small number of dominant hegemonic groups characterized by their possession of a
disproportionately large share of social value and ability to access the means of individual
achievement (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999; Wilson, 2017). This opportunity is often related to an
individual’s privileged identity, such as masculinity, heterosexuality, and whiteness (Liu, 2017).
Institutional-level mechanisms embedded within the social structure and institutions, such as law

11

enforcement, facilitate, reinforce, and perpetuate these existing group-based inequalities and
privileged identities that maintain the status quo (Gaucher et al., 2011; Liu, 2017).
There is a significant amount of literature that identifies the differences in the way men
and women use everyday language and are linguistically dissimilar. Yet, there are subtle cues
that often go unacknowledged and overlooked by society that reinforce the underrepresentation
of certain groups in certain sectors of employment. For example, gendered wording in
recruitment materials heightens the gender-based underrepresentation of women in traditionally
male-dominated occupations. Consequently, this affects the psychological process of applicants
significantly. Masculine language emphasizing words, such as competitive, dominate, and
leader, are often included in job advertisements in fields that are characteristically male
dominated, such as policing. These words often cue women that they do not belong, which can
serve to discouraging them from applying (Gaucher et al., 2011). This reinforces the existing
gender inequality and keeps women out of these male-dominated professions (Gaucher et al.,
2011).
Within SDT, aggregated individual discrimination refers to the simple, daily, and
inconspicuous individual acts of discrimination by one person against another. When thousands
of individual acts of discrimination are aggregated over days, weeks, and years, they contribute
to the noticeable differences in the power between groups (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999; Wilson,
2017). An example of power differential is the number of female commissioned officers in
Canada. Commissioned officers include personnel who have obtained senior officer status
(Statistics Canada, 2019). This typically includes individuals who have obtained the rank of
lieutenant or higher (Statistics Canada, 2019). Although the number of female commissioned
officers has gradually increased, as of 2018, they only accounted for 15% of all commissioned

12

officers (Conor, Robson, & Marcellus, 2019). This means that men hold most positions of power
within policing. If masculine language continues to be used without recognizing its implications,
women will continue to be deterred from applying to police organizations or other maledominated professions where power differentials prevail.
Gendered wording can emerge through a motivational bias that exists beyond an
individual’s awareness (Gaucher et al., 2011). Motivational biases “include conscious or
unconscious distortions of judgements and decisions because of self-interest, social pressures, or
organizational context” (Montibeller & Detlof von Winterfeldt, 2015, p. 1230). As such,
marketing teams may unconsciously utilize gendered wording in their advertisements. However,
Gaucher et al. (2011) found that men displayed only a slight preference for masculine-worded
advertisement and that it did not affect their feelings of belongingness. Conversely, he found that
gendered wording does affect women (Gaucher et al., 2011). Gaucher et al. (2011) discovered
that women were deterred from advertisements and job positions that utilized masculine
wording. Women perceived such advertisements as less appealing and anticipated less belonging
than those with feminine wording, such as support and understanding, and words that
emphasized interpersonal skills (Gaucher et al., 2011). As a result, such wording reaffirms and
perpetuates gender inequality manifested through the language used in job advertisements
(Gaucher et al., 2011).
To mitigate this, masculine wording must be identified in advertisements and job
postings. Some masculine words should be replaced with feminine wording to balance gendered
language, especially in traditionally male-dominated professions. Women tend to be more
attracted to male-dominated jobs when the advertisements are unbiased and refer to both men
and women as candidates, or explicitly refer to women as ideal candidates. Moreover, women

13

tend to be more communal and interpersonal than men. Thus, it could be beneficial to utilize
more references to social and emotional words (Gaucher et al., 2011).
The importance of language was exemplified by the New York Police Department
(NYPD) in 1973 when the terms “policewoman” and “patrolman” were replaced with the
gender-neutral title “police officer” (Reilly Schmidt, 2013). The use of gendered wording
affected people’s perceptions of these jobs. This exemplifies how both men and women find jobs
described in language consistent with their own gender appealing because it is a conceived
indicator that they belong within that occupation (Gaucher et al., 2011).

Police Policies and Programs
Traditional customary requirements for the RCMP include being a male between the age
of 18 to 30 years old, unmarried, and over 5’8’ (see Advertisement 3 in Appendix A). However,
traditional requirements have been removed or modified alongside transformations in Canadian
demographics. Adaptations have included implementing special policies and programs to
diversify applicants, remove barriers, and make the career as a Mountie more attractive (Tunney,
2018).
RCMP policy changes have ranged from removing credit and criminal record checks,
eliminating mandatory aptitude, hearing and vision tests, and reducing the required time spent at
their training facility to remove actual and perceived barriers to employment (Tunney, 2018).
Other policies and programs have included cultural shifts, such as the RCMP allowing Muslim
women in its ranks to wear the hijab as part of their uniform in 2016 to better reflect the diversity
within Canadian communities and to encourage Muslim women to consider the RCMP as a
career option (Montgomery, 2016; Slotkin, 2016).

14

In 2013, the RCMP Recruiting Unit in British Columbia took exceptional measures to
encourage women to join the RCMP by creating the Women's Accelerated Recruiting Process
(Rogers, 2019). This initiative was designed to hire more women and create a more equitable
balance between female and male members. This accelerated process adhered to the identical
standards of the current RCMP application process while reducing the application process time
to six months or less for women to encourage more women to apply and join the organization. In
total, 23 women successfully completed the recruitment exam through the accelerated recruiting
process and moved quickly toward their goal of becoming RCMP members (Rogers, 2019).
Employment equity (EE) goals and affirmative action initiatives have also been used to
increase the presence of underrepresented groups in uniform and to better reflect the
communities the RCMP serves (RCMP, n.d.; Rogers, 2019). The RCMP recognized that
employee diversity contributed to its strength (O Division, 2018). Accordingly, to increase the
number of women interested in joining the organization, the RCMP created an Officer Candidate
Program (OCP). The O Division OCP Development Program was designed to encourage and
support employees to reach their full potential and succeed in promotion to an officer level
position (O Division, 2018). The OCP development committee consisted of O Division officers
with various backgrounds and abilities who sought to mentor, coach, and coordinate
developmental opportunities (O Division, 2018). In the 2011-2012 cycle, 24% of female
applicants in the OCP successfully completed the program. This increased to 62% in the 20162017 cycle (RCMP, n.d.). The number of successful EE group applicants, other than female, in
the OCP also increased from 28% in the 2011-2012 cycle to 51% in the 2016-2017 cycle. These
outputs suggest that the program was effective in increasing the number of diverse individuals
becoming police officers (RCMP, n.d.).

15

While many advancements have been made by the RCMP, substantial gaps in equality
remain (Status of Women Canada, 2018). The RCMP has utilized Gender-Based Analysis Plus
(GBA+), an analytical process used to assess how diverse groups experience policies, programs,
and initiatives to identify gender inequalities (RCMP, 2018; Status of Women Canada, 2018). In
early 2012, the GBA+ was completed to identify the effects of RCMP polices on diverse groups,
address barriers, and increase diversity within the recruiting process (RCMP, 2018). In October
2017, the GBA+ produced considerable procedural change to the OCP contributing to an
increase of female applicants from 17% to 29% in less than one year (RCMP, 2018). Full
implementation of the results began in 2018 with efforts to continue to increase the interest and
diversity of applicants (RCMP, 2018).
Policies implemented to encourage diversity are not limited to recruitment. In some
specialized units, actual and perceived barriers have been removed to address concerns that
might be holding existing officers back from applying for reasons that do not relate to the actual
job (Vasylchuk, 2019). A 2012 survey conducted by the Canadian Police College found that the
most common barriers to women applying to the Emergency Response Team (ERT) were fitness
standards, a perceived unwelcoming work environment, and work-life balance. In response to
this survey, in 2015, the RCMP’s ERT modified its physical standards, selection process, and
course to identify and address these barriers (Vasylchuk, 2019). By removing outdated physical
standards that were not representative of job function, the ERT modernized its approach by
testing only with the ERT Physical Abilities Requirement Evaluation (PARE) to ensure the
activities undertaken by applicants translated to what an ERT member actually does (Vasylchuk,
2019). Additionally, the RCMP claimed that the standards were “gender-neutral and backed by
science and psychology” (Vasylchuk, 2019). This helped to ensure there was no discrimination

16

in the selection process (Vasylchuk, 2019). Of note, the selection into an ERT unit is restricted to
those who have already served a number of years as a police officer and, therefore, does not
directly encourage the recruitment of more women into policing in the first instance.
Although creating different policies and programs to enhance diversity has proven to be
effective, it begs the question of whether such strategies are actually necessary. This major paper
focuses on what other modifications can operate alongside broader discussions on large policy
shifts to achieve greater diversity in the RCMP. Simply put, there are other ways that the RCMP
can attract more qualified, diverse applicants without creating new policies and programs.

Historical Ideals
The police service has a long history as a masculine organization with a strong
militaristic and virility culture (Davies & Thomas, 2003). Police work has historically been a
male-constructed occupation embodying hegemonic masculinity (Hewitt, 1996) that reinforces
power through the subordination of women, heterosexism, authority, control, competitive
individualism, aggressiveness, and the capability to utilize violence (Workman-Stark, 2015). The
representation of the male police body has played a central role in understanding, reinforcing,
revisiting, and recreating gender, power, and normative standards within the RCMP (Reilly
Schmidt, 2013). Distinctly strong male-oriented images and a preference for masculine traits
such as dominance and competitiveness have created tension, an inability to be accepted, and
feelings of otherness for some women, which reinforces their marginalized status within
masculine organizations (Davies & Thomas, 2003). While women have experienced this discord,
it must be acknowledged that women are not the only group that has been challenged by
masculinity within policing. Some men, predominately those who do not conform to hegemonic

17

masculine ideals, have been excluded as they may threaten the association of masculine identity
within policing (Workman-Stark, 2015).
In the 20th century, perceived physical limitations of the female body, such as finite
mental and physical energy, frailty, and delicacy, were so entrenched in the thinking of most
Canadians that, by the 1970s, such characteristics were assumed to be natural to femininity and
attributes shared by all women (Reilly Schmidt, 2013). Socially constructed notions of
appropriate femininity included passivity and subordination to men; traits that were considered
unsuitable for policing (Reilly Schmidt, 2013).
Before the middle of the 20th century, many police organizations around the world had
height and weight standards and requirements for officers. Any applicants unable to meet the
established standards were not considered suitable applicants (Bonneau & Brown, 1995). In
North America, height and weight requirements were set by individual police departments
(Anderson et al., 2001). For instance, in the 1950s the RCMP had a height requirement of 5’8”
(see Advertisement 3). Despite the fact females were not permitted to apply at this time, most
would have been unable to even if they had since the average height of a female aged 18 to 44
was 5’1” in 1953 (Pett, 1955).
It was assumed that large males were best suited for the rigors of police work, especially
the tasks of pursuit, confrontation, and arrest (Anderson et al., 2001). In the early part of the 20th
century, many police officers patrolled rural environments, often on horseback in unpleasant
weather conditions. Consequently, there was an assumption that only large men had the capacity
to do this type of work and that they were best fitted for the job (Bonneau & Brown, 1995).
The RCMP culture was one that honoured physical ability and a great muscular body
(Reilly Schmidt, 2013). It was believed that what was established as the ideal male police body

18

was the most effective crime-fighting mechanism (Reilly Schmidt, 2013). Since the RCMP
identified itself as an organization of strong, white, adult males, transcending the simple
understandings of a masculine ideal, it was believed that Mounties were more than capable of
responding to physical violence with force if required (Reilly Schmidt, 2013). During this time,
the physical masculine strength of an RCMP officer was regarded as appropriate and the
Mountie was considered the “living embodiment of a state that was manly, white, and powerful”
(Reilly Schmidt, 2013, p. 32). “Stature, physical strength, aggression, and the willingness to
engage in violence were considered essential in transforming men from civilians to police
officers” (Reilly Schmidt, 2013, p. 104).
Conversely, the female body was believed to be unlikely to uphold civic authority due to
its physical size and limitations. Women were generally smaller in stature, considered
emotionally unpredictable, and subject to their reproductive functions (Reilly Schmidt, 2013).
Ideas surrounding the physical limitations of the female body created the perception of women as
the weaker sex, generally frail, unable to maintain an authoritative presence, and suffering from
the debilitating effects of menstruation (Rabe-Hemp, 2008; Reilly Schmidt, 2013).
Police organizations were needlessly denying themselves the opportunity to recruit a
large segment of the population who were perfectly capable of doing the job (Bonneau & Brown,
1995). It was realized that neither size nor gender ensured occupational fitness (Bonneau &
Brown, 1995). By the 1950s, many agencies began to acknowledge the arbitrary and
discriminatory nature of standard officer requirements and subsequently eliminated the height
and weight restrictions that had once prevented smaller statured individuals from becoming
police officers (Anderson et al., 2001; Bonneau & Brown, 1995).

19

As the 20th century advanced, despite a number of RCMP commissioners actively
perpetrating the organization’s masculine and heroic identity (Reilly Schmidt, 2013), people
began to challenge the dominance of white bourgeois masculinity in Canada. By the 1960s,
public awareness and concern over equality issues was increasing and women began to demand
an equal role in all sectors of society (Montgomery, 2016; Reilly Schmidt, 2013). In 1967, the
Canadian government established the Royal Commission on the Status of Women to address
gender inequality in several sectors of Canadian society (Montgomery, 2016). One of the 1970
recommendations was that the RCMP begin to accept women recruits (Montgomery, 2016). The
mid-1970s brought the arrival of women into the RCMP, which disrupted “the masculine image
of a police force that was intimately connected to idealized Canadian manhood and the formation
of the nation” (Reilly Schmidt, 2013, p. v). In 1974, the RCMP hired women as regular members
and officially promoted itself as a gender-neutral organization after an explosive growth in
feminism and significant political pressure on the government and the RCMP to change the
organization (CTV News, 2020; Ingram, 2014; Reilly Schmidt, 2013).
Women were interested in policing for a variety of reasons. Cheryl Joyce, a member of
one of the first RCMP female troops, otherwise known as Troop 17, stated, “[I] loved being
involved in trying to make things better for people” (RCMP, 2014a). She explained that she “just
wanted something that was outside of four walls, I needed to be out in the community” (RCMP,
2014a). Barb Alexander, also part of Troop 17, worked as a dispatcher and later worked at the
front counter of another police department. These positions “had such an impact that she never
considered a career other than policing” (RCMP, 2014b). On May 24, 1974, when the RCMP
announced it would take applications from women, she immediately called the staffing office

20

and later that year, she was sworn in and headed to Depot, the RCMP’s training facility (RCMP,
2014b).
By joining the RCMP, women met the same recruiting standards, received the same pay,
and were invested the same policing powers. However, this illusion of equality concealed the
masculine nature of the persistent informal police culture. While policy and legislation mandated
the inclusion of women, they were not fully accepted within the field (Reilly Schmidt, 2013).
Despite the portrayal of women being equal to their male colleagues, this was not this case.
When the first class of 32 female recruits arrived at Depot on September 13 and 14 in 1974, they
were issued purses to hold their small guns and handcuffs (CTV News, 2020; Ingram, 2014).
They were also given short skirts, taupe panty hoses, red blazer jackets, white polyester
turtleneck shirts, and shoes with small block heels that were not ideal for running after suspects.
This was one of the first signals that the RCMP viewed women as different from men (CTV
News, 2020; Ingram, 2014). The recognizable red serge was prohibited for women to ensure
women kept their femininity (CTV News, 2020).
Many men in the RCMP opposed the arrival of women as they were seen as a threat to
the traditional masculine image of the police organization and because they firmly believed that
women were physically and emotionally incapable of performing police duties (Reilly Schmidt,
2013). Even once female officers began work, images of the male Mountie persisted (Reilly
Schmidt, 2013). For example, the Canadian tourism industry continued to rely on the male
Mountie whether that be through apparel, accessories, or collectables (La Boutique the Mountie
Shop, 2020).

21

However, as time went on, there was an increasing emphasis on the importance of
multiple voices representing the complexity of diverse individuals and a move away from
conventional ways people fit within organizational discourses (Davies & Thomas, 2003).
This led to a changing professional identity within the police service and a move away from
simplistic notions of what it means to be a woman, man, or a policing professional (Davis &
Thomas, 2003). The ideal police applicant and the qualities the organization sought transformed
alongside social changes, shifts in what was expected of police work, and cultural variations
(Inzunz, 2016). Despite a minimum level of required physical ability, testing became more job
specific and there was less emphasis on physical strength when seeking ideal candidates (Ingram,
2014; Inzunz, 2016). There was a gradual appreciation of diverse abilities to offer more
professional, tolerant, and caring community-oriented policing, and a realization that police
activities, such as arrest or use of force, were relatively rare (Bonneau & Brown, 1995; Brown &
Wolfenden, 2011; Davies & Thomas, 2003; Rabe-Hemp, 2008).
Although workplace differences between the sexes had officially been eliminated by the
RCMP by implementing federal employment equity policies and human rights legislation,
policies have failed to create change in the police culture and the number of women within the
organization. There are still gender issues in the RCMP with women continuing to be positioned
as different and unequal to male officers (Montgomery, 2016; Reilly Schmidt, 2013). The police
body is one visible surface that created cultural meanings and understandings of gender (Reilly
Schmidt, 2013).
Despite the nature and philosophy of policing having evolved since its inception,
“policing continues to be understood as a dangerous, “masculine” occupation because of its
association with aggressive behavior and the legitimate use of force, from which women have

22

been traditionally excluded” (Workman-Stark, 2015, p. 764). Law enforcement remains a maledominated profession (Milgram, 2002). In Canada, only one out of every five police officers are
female (Malakieh, 2018). Statistics Canada indicates that the number of female police officers in
Canada has increased steadily since 1986. In 1986, the proportion of police officers who were
female was 16.2%. This proportion increased to 29.5% in 1995, 39.5% in 2005, 41.8% in 2010,
and 42.7% in 2015 (Statistics Canada, 2020). However, the proportion of female officers in
Canada has plateaued since 2015 from 43.2% in 2016 and 2017 to 42.3% in 2018 (Statistics
Canada, 2020).
The RCMP is no different than the overall Canadian policing demographics. In 1974, the
first female troop attended Depot (RCMP, n.d.). In 1999, female members made up 14% of the
total RCMP member population (Johnstone & Rich, 1974). By 2012, women represented 20% of
the organization’s 19,258 regular members (Slotkin, 2016). As of April 1, 2016, there were 3,979
females (RCMP, n.d.). Although this is a significant numerical increase, the disparity between
female and male officers remained great. On April 1, 2016, females represented only 21.6% of
all 18,462 sworn RCMP officers (RCMP, n.d.).
As illustrated in Figure 1, by April 2018, women represented 39.1% of the total
workforce in the RCMP, 21.6% of regular members, 19% of individuals who have obtained
senior officer status, and 51.7% of civilian members (Conor et al., 2019; RCMP, 2018; Tunney,
2018). Despite many police chiefs expressing the desire to increase the number of sworn female
officers in their detachments, they find that few women are applying (Lappage, 2015; Milgram,
2002). The RCMP claims they are committed to increasing their number of female police
officers, but the number of women still remains far less than men (RCMP, 2020b).

23

Figure 1: Number of Canadian Female Officers by Rank (Conor et al., 2019).

Shifting Perceptions
The qualities that an applicant should possess in order to become a good police officer
are difficult to predict (Sanders, 2003). Still, the competencies and qualities necessary to become
a successful police officer have been explored in a variety of studies. There are some abilities
and qualities that are considered to be essential elements of a basic profile for a potential police
officer (Sanders, 2003). Sanders (2003) explained that “traits such as intelligence, common
sense, dependability, and honesty appear more frequently than others in the police literature”
(Sanders, 2003, p. 314). Other elements within the selection criteria are generally divided into
groups, such as formal requirements, physical requirements, and personal suitability (Inzunza,
2016). Examples of formal requirements include being within a certain age range, possessing a
valid driver’s licence, and achieving a certain level of education. There are also essential jobrelated physical abilities that are required in the regular course of duty. Applicants are typically
24

required to have sufficient agility, strength, and endurance to meet the physical necessities of the
job (Anderson et al., 2001; Inzunz, 2016). Although activities that require physical abilities are
infrequent, it is essential that a police officer can engage in them effectively (Bonneau & Brown,
1995). Research has also identified certain characteristics as being particularly relevant to the
personality of the ideal applicant. The term psychological suitability has been used to incorporate
both desirable and non-desirable personal attributes (Inzunz, 2016). For the RCMP, officers must
also be of good character (RCMP, 2019b). This means that officers must uphold the highest
ethical standards on and off duty (RCMP, 2019a). During the recruiting process, behavior
standards, such as honesty, integrity, professionalism, accountability, compassion, and respect,
are expected and assessed. As a police officer, building and maintaining the public trust by
upholding the highest ethical standards is essential (RCMP, 2019b).
Furthermore, in recent years, the diversity among populations has been changed by
socioeconomic, geopolitical, environmental, and technological factors globally. This has
transformed the composition of societies and manipulated the way diverse groups of people
interact, work, and cohabit (Eboh et al., 2018). Subsequently, the requirements for an individual
to be a successful police officer has shifted. For contemporary police organizations, personal
suitability is now often more important than physical performance (Bonneau & Brown, 1995;
Inzunz, 2016). Street-level policing requires interpersonal qualities to function within the
professional group and to interact with members of society (Inzunz, 2016). However, often the
demographics of police officers do not represent the diverse communities they serve (Linos,
2018). Given the mosaic of cultures, races, ethnicities, and genders in Canada, police
organizations must maintain efforts to better reflect the communities they are there to protect and
be able to identify and meet the dissimilar needs of such diverse populations. The worth of

25

attracting and retaining staff from all demographic groups is gradually becoming realized and
accepted. Organizations are recognizing that diversity can improve workforce performance and
improve their competitive position (Ferreira & Coetzee, 2010).
A stronger emphasis on a discourse encouraging the idea of bringing about change
through difference has emerged in recent years (Silvestri, 2015). Many organizations have
explicit directives and goals to increase gender diversity within their workplaces (Gaucher et al.,
2011). In 2014, the RCMP expressed a goal to enroll as many women as men at Depot (Quan,
2014). However, many observers were skeptical about whether there was enough interest among
females to reach the 50% recruitment target as a result of a masculine culture that still existed
within the organization (Quan, 2014). As mentioned above, in 2017, females represented only
21% of all sworn officers (Conor, 2018).
The RCMP is actively attempting to increase its numbers of females and visible
minorities. They are working to move away from the “traditional officer” and traditional criteria.
The RCMP Gender and Respect Action Plan (GRAP), published in 2013, set goals for the
composition and proportion of the regular member workforce to reflect 30% women by 2025
(RCMP, n.d., 2018). They also have a target goal to make the proportion of women in officer and
executive positions at all levels to be at least 30% by 2025 (RCMP, 2018). If attained, the RCMP
maintains that they will continue to set reasonable and attainable goals to reach gender parity.
However, if unmet, the RCMP will continue to review its efforts, track the number of women
applicants, and work towards achieving these goals (RCMP, 2018). Contemporary policing as a
whole will be challenged to create greater gender diversity based on notions of equal opportunity
in the coming years (Silvestri, 2015).

26

Project Methodology
Diversity can encompass many variables ranging from race and ethnicity to age, sexual
orientation, and gender. All categories and forms have merit. However, this major paper focuses
on gender, with a particular attention to women in policing. To determine how the RCMP can
appeal to more women, this major paper utilized a qualitative methodological approach whereby
RCMP recruitment materials were analyzed and policies were reviewed. This decision was due
to a number of practical limitations, such as time constraints, financial barriers, and security
restrictions to police data. By analyzing the images in recruitment advertisements and the policy
approaches taken within the RCMP, this major paper highlights how recruitment techniques have
changed over time and what has resulted from these changes. This analysis was supplemented by
published research to understand how advertising and recruitment techniques are influenced by
societal demographics. By exploring the existing literature, this preliminary study highlights how
policies and recruitment methods have changed, the outcomes of these changes, and what more
needs to be done to increase the number of qualified females who apply to the RCMP.
Multiple unsuccessful attempts to reach out to the RCMP to gain access to archived
image-based advertisements were made. The RCMP’s marketing and recruitment units from
British Columbia and Ottawa, and Regina Historical Collections Unit indicated that they either
no longer had old job postings or did not respond to my request for information. After careful
consideration, it was decided to do a Google search, “X RCMP recruitment poster,” whereby X
was substituted for each year from 1974, the year the first female troop attended Depot, to 2020.
The first 100 images for each year were reviewed because there was an enormous number of
available images. Moreover, after 100 images, it became clear that the succeeding images were
not RCMP recruitment images. Additionally, if duplicate images from multiple years were

27

identified, they were removed. Law enforcement or first responder career fair posters that
included the RCMP among other organizations were excluded because it was not possible to
discern if they were developed by the RCMP, even though these images depicted police officers
and may contribute to women choosing to not apply to the RCMP. As well, RCMP postings that
were for positions other than a police officer were also excluded. By using this approach, in total,
16 images fit the criteria (see Appendix A). Table 1 demonstrates the breakdown of images
across the years examined.

Table 1: Number of Images from Each Year
Year
Unspecified year in the 1950s
1951
1981
2012
2014
2017
2018
2019
Unknown year

Number of Images
2
1
1
2
2
2
1
4
1

Each image was verified to establish the year it was published and to ensure
advertisements were limited to the RCMP. Each image was reviewed to identify the number of
women represented, the role or position the women had, how often and what type of wording
was used, and what the purpose of the advertisement was. Subsequently, each image was
reviewed chronologically to identify what changes in imagery and wording occurred over time.
A final review of the RCMP careers website (RCMP, 2020a) was conducted to see the current
image and wording the RCMP is presenting to the public.

28

Changes in Recruitment Message and Imaging
Upon a review of the images presented on Google, a Mountie in scarlet surge appeared in
8 out of 16 RCMP advertisements (50%), with six of these eight Mounties being male (75%);
these images ranged from the 1950s to 2019. A cursory review of the advertisements suggests
that the RCMP recruitment material was consistent with the notion that, for much of the history
of the RCMP, the organization was considered a white, male service. One 1951 advertisement
went so far as to say “a permanent career in the RCMP is available to young men” suggesting
that women were unwanted. This advertisement depicted a white, male Mountie standing upright
and rigid to seemingly reinforce the notion that the RCMP was an exclusively male organization.
On either side of the Mountie were 10 provincial coats of arms. Below the image, the job
requirements were noted, such as being unmarried, between the ages of 18 to 30 years old, in
good physical condition, over 5’8” tall, and of good character. It also stated what was offered by
the organization, such as security, prestige, adventure, an opportunity for advancement, and a
salary starting at $170 to $200 per month (see Advertisement 3 in Appendix A). The other two
advertisements from the 1950s included white male Mounties standing alone and smiling. Both
posters had the lines, “a career in scarlet” and “you are invited to help maintain the right,”
followed by invitations to join the RCMP (see Advertisements 1 and 2 in Appendix A).
However, such advertisements failed to include any wording or visual imagery regarding what
the position entailed and what the RCMP had to offer. All three 1950s advertisements only
included white men, which could serve to send a clear message of what kind of person the
RCMP was looking to recruit and join their organization. In effect, the lack of racially diverse
visual imagery may have influenced the lower ratings of organizational attractiveness of the
RCMP for visible minorities (Linos, 2018; Riccucci et al., 2014).

29

The next advertisement was from the 1980s since there were no images on Google from
the 1960s and 1970s. The 1980s RCMP poster included women alongside men in uniform (see
Advertisement 4 in Appendix A). Of note, as there was an approximately 20-year gap in the
posters that were available for this major paper, it was not possible to determine exactly what
year women began to appear in RCMP recruitment posters. However, this shift in advertising
coincided somewhat with the RCMP hiring women as regular members in 1974 after a rise in
feminism and political pressure on the RCMP to allow women to be officers (CTV News, 2020;
Ingram, 2014; Reilly Schmidt, 2013).
One advertisement from 1981 depicted an altruistic side of policing (see Advertisement 4
in Appendix A). This was an improvement in comparison to prior postings because, according to
the ATA paradigm, people with higher PSM are more likely to be employed in public service
professions as the ability to help others is very appealing to them (Linos, 2018; Perry et al., 2010;
Perry & Wise, 1990; Schneider, 1987). Rather than the advertisement imagery depicting a sole
white male Mountie in red serge, this poster demonstrated police officers serving various roles.
For example, one male police officer appears to be engaging with the community by speaking to
a young boy and his dog. The image also displays a female police officer giving directions or
assisting a lady on a bicycle. In the top left corner of the image, there is also an illustration of a
male and a female police officer standing side by side, which can signal the desire to have
members of both genders in policing. This advertisement provided the opportunity to conceive of
policing as a helping profession to attract a wider range of potential applicants, particularly those
with higher PSM.
Still, it is interesting to note that, in the job advertisement, women were not in the
recognizable red serge. Instead, they were depicted in suits, skirts, and heals (see Advertisement

30

4 in Appendix A). These advertisements were an accurate depiction of what women were
allowed to wear, at that time, in the RCMP. Women were given short skirts, panty hoses, red
blazer jackets, polyester turtleneck shirts, and heels to perform their police duties (CTV News,
2020; Ingram, 2014); they were not permitted to wear the serge. One possible explanation for
this was to ensure that women police officers maintained their femininity (CTV News, 2020).
However, PSM messaging alone is ineffective at attracting applicants who are not drawn
to public service positions (Linos, 2018; Perry et al., 2010). Although potential applicants may
be interested in organizational characteristics, they also make decisions to apply to a position
based on recruiting variables, such as pay (Chapman et al., 2005; Feldman et al., 2006). Thus, it
is essential that the intrinsic and extrinsic needs of potential applicants be considered, such as
career advancement and benefits (Linos, 2018). The 1981 advertisement also presented
information considering the intrinsic and extrinsic needs of applications by identifying a starting
salary of $18,430 and what qualifications were required to become an RCMP officer, such as
being a Canadian citizen, possessing a valid driver’s licence, and being proficient in English or
French. It also indicated that applicants must be “of good character and good health” without
specifying what these terms meant. It also included the benefits of joining the organization, such
as undertaking an interesting, challenging, and rewarding career, and a single line that “this
posting is open to both men and women” without any additional efforts made to encourage
female candidates to apply (see Advertisement 4 in Appendix A).
Similar to the 1960s and 1970s, Google did not have any recruitment posters from the
RCMP for the 1990s. Moving into the 2000s, advertisements began publicizing the different
positions within the RCMP. In total, 11 images of RCMP job posting advertisements were found
between 2012 and 2019. While some advertisements were quite basic (9.1%), simply inviting

31

applicants to become a member or join the organization in bold letters without any visual
representation of people or what the job entails (see Advertisements 5 and 6 in Appendix A),
others (27.3%) included images depicting police officers of both genders on snowmobiles,
bicycles, and helping people in car accidents (see Advertisements 7, 8, and 11 in Appendix A).
In total, eight of the eleven postings (72.7%) encouraged people to attend career presentations or
information sessions and one (9.1%) specifically invited women to attend these sessions (9.1%).
Advertisement 9 from 2012 depicted a female police officer on duty in the foreground
wearing the same uniform as a male police officer in the background. One could imagine that
both officers hold the same position or role as there was nothing in the image to distinguish
between the two members. It was around 2012 when advertisements began utilizing more vague
tag lines such as “a career nowhere near ordinary” (see Advertisement 9 in Appendix A).
However, postings with such tag lines failed to include what characteristics the RCMP was
specifically looking for in recruits (see Advertisements 9 and 10 in Appendix A).
Advertisement 8 was also from 2012. It displayed a non-white female officer on a
bicycle. This advertisement explicitly used visual imagery to emphasize gender and racial
diversity to increase organizational attractiveness for women and visible minorities (Linos, 2018;
Riccucci et al., 2014). The ATA model suggests that applicants pursue jobs that fit their
characteristics, needs, and values through the type of work offered (Chapman et al., 2005). While
the decision may be influenced by the ability of the position to gratify their altruistic orientation
(Perry et al., 2010; Perry & Wise, 1990), this kind of advertisement may have also conveyed a
specific message of the type of ‘softer’ work women in policing do, such as bike patrol. During
this time, the RCMP’s recruitment materials also began to advise prospective female applicants
that “women provide a unique policing perspective” and could “contribute to a balanced

32

approach to resolving problems” (Quan, 2014). In alignment with this general outlook, this
advertisement and others began to promote women-only career fairs (see Advertisement 8 in
Appendix A).
In 2014, the RCMP also noted that men tended to be “more physical and confrontational,
whereas women tend to focus on communication” (Quan, 2014). This perspective was validated
in a 2014 advertisement where a male police officer appears helping a woman in distress (see
Advertisement 11 in Appendix A). An ambulance can also be seen in the background with
another officer directing traffic on a police motorcycle. Both police positions are physical and
may signal both a helping and a crime fighting role. Of note, there were no female police officers
present in this advertisement. Instead, the only image of a woman in this advertisement was the
person receiving assistance from the police.
By 2017, women dressed in the familiar serge became the focal point of several
advertisements. Such postings enabled women to be represented the same way as men. While the
image of the sole Mountie in red serge remained fundamentally the same, two advertisements
used the image of a women police officer standing alone in what appears to be the same location
as her male counterpart (see Advertisements 10 and 12 in Appendix A). Presenting a visual
image can strengthen the message that women are welcome into policing by enabling women to
perceive her as a peer (Linos, 2018).
Additionally, by 2017, the specific assignments and units, such as financial crime, police
dog services, and tactical troop, were identified as potential opportunities (see Advertisements 9
and 10 in Appendix A). The detailed descriptions of career options provided people with the
opportunity to determine their suitability to become a police officer, thereby potentially making
them more inclined to apply (Feldman et al., 2006). Although one 2018 posting has only the

33

image of a single white male police officer, it also included detailed information surrounding
what opportunities the RCMP had, the basic application requirements, what the recruiting
process entailed, the pay and benefits, and lines such as “the Royal Canadian Mounted Police
offers a challenging and exciting career to those interested in making a difference in their
communities and their country” (see Advertisement 12 in Appendix A). Moreover, it included
the statement “a uniform with your name on it is waiting for you,” which continued to be used in
subsequent marketing material. This declaration can make people feel welcome and presents a
sense of belonging, yet it still does not specifically target women (see Advertisements 12 and 15
in Appendix A).
By 2019, the RCMP was still using marketing material with minimal information and no
specific target demographic (see Advertisements 13, 14, and 15 in Appendix A). To encourage
recruits to apply, advertisements depicted a sole male or female Mountie with simple lines like
“interested in a career as a police officer? Don’t miss these recruiting events…” All three
advertisements neglected to provide any indication of what the role of a police officer is like nor
did they specifically target women or diverse communities. Furthermore “A career nowhere near
ordinary” was frequently used without any further information about what the job entailed or
what kind of person would be suitable for the career. Overall, recruitment advertisements in 2019
and the website for jobs in the RCMP utilized the taglines “vast opportunities,” “adventure,” (see
Advertisement 13 in Appendix A) and the statement that “the RCMP offers an exceptional
career, letting you make a real difference in your community and your country” (RCMP, 2020a)
without showing many officers engaging in these roles or opportunities.
The P-E fit paradigm suggests that people seek complementary and supplementary fit
when considering a posting or a job advertisement (Cable & Edwards, 2004). The P-E fit

34

paradigm emphasizes that a person or organization must provide what the other wants or needs
and that both must have similar characteristics and values (Cable & Edwards, 2004). Although
some RCMP advertisements from the 2000s identified that policing offered a unique,
challenging, and exciting career, in recent years, most advertisements have failed to identify how
policing can satisfy applicants’ wants and needs, and specifically the desires of female
applicants. Both intrinsic and extrinsic needs, such as job security, career advancement, and
benefits, were rarely considered or explicitly mentioned (Linos, 2018). Moreover, the more
recent RCMP advertisements did not identify or speak to organizational values. This can
negatively affect how a potential applicant discerns their fit for an advertised position. Instead,
an effective advertisement would clearly articulate what a career in the RCMP has to offer and
what its core organizational values are.
While shifts in policing from rapid response to community policing to problem-oriented
policing to intelligence-led policing to crime reduction has expanded the police mandate from a
wholly crime-fighting role to one that addresses wider community issues offering residents the
opportunity to help identify and solve local problems (Workman-Stark, 2015), this is not the
image the RCMP portrays in its recruitment advertisements. In all of the RCMP advertisement
images identified for this major paper, not one included an RCMP officer engaging in
community policing, problem-oriented policing, or intelligence-led policing.
The RCMP says that they want diversity, but the message they are putting out in their job
postings do not necessarily reflect this or target these types of potential applicants. The principal
recruitment message put out by the RCMP is “a uniform with your name is waiting for
you” (RCMP, 2020a). Although it is indistinct, universal, and omits any previous policing
stereotypes, no identifiable effort is being made to recruit minority groups nor does it

35

acknowledge that underrepresented groups are welcome and wanted. Moreover, it does not
recognize the historical exclusion of minority groups from policing which may make it difficult
for such groups to feel that they truly belong.
Although SDT would suggest that men and women use everyday language differently
and that gendered wording in recruitment materials heightens the underrepresentation of women
in traditionally male-dominated occupations, it appears that the RCMP has consistently
disregarded any use of women-centred wording in their advertisements (Gaucher et al., 2011).
This has the potential to affect the psychological process of female applicants. Advertisements
that do not specifically and directly signal that women are desired for the position can discourage
women from applying (Gaucher et al., 2011). Women tend to be more attracted to maledominated positions when advertisements refer to both men and women as candidates, or
explicitly refer to women as ideal candidates (Gaucher et al., 2011). Therefore, the RCMP must
clearly identify that underrepresented groups are encouraged to apply in their advertisements.
Of note, the RCMP careers website does include a Women in Policing section that
acknowledges the contribution of women since 1974 and that “the RCMP is committed to
increasing the number of female police officers in our organization. From Constable to
Commissioner, anything is possible for the proud and dedicated women who serve in this
historic organization” (RCMP, 2020b). While the RCMP stated that, in 2015-2016, their careers
website was overhauled to include updated language and a new “common look and feel” to
reflect the guidelines implemented by the Government of Canada (RCMP, 2018), their page is
quite vague and does not provide much information specific to women except the opportunity to
attend a “Women in Policing” career presentation that provides women a unique opportunity to

36

meet and get advice from female recruiters and learn about their experiences as police officers
(RCMP, 2020b).
The RCMP claims its current advertising campaign highlights diverse men and women in
numerous policing specializations, such as bike patrol (RCMP, 2018; see Advertisement 8 in
Appendix A). The RCMP pledges to continue to improve the design and content of its
recruitment materials to include more women and utilize broader inclusive language that reflects
the belief that women and men are equally capable and meritorious of promotion (RCMP, 2018).
They also claim they will solicit input on all recruitment resources from all persons working
within the RCMP (RCMP, 2018).
Upon a review of the advertisements, it became clear that the RCMP presents itself as a
primarily male organization without any visual efforts to increase the number of women it
employs as police officers. The RCMP conveys that they want more women to apply to the
organization; however, they are not indicating that message in their advertisements, nor are they
consistently presenting images of women wearing the red serge or in the line of duty. There
appears to be a disconnect between what they say they would like to achieve and the posting they
are using to achieve their goals. As times change, it is unlikely that police agencies will continue
to comprehend recruitment as simply placing an advertisement in the local newspaper or on their
website or having a display at a university career fair. Thus, the ability to understand recruitment
as marketing may involve a significant paradigm shift among police agencies (Milgram, 2002).

Advertisement Recommendations to Increase the Number of Women in the RCMP
Three components influence an individual’s intention to complete a job application
process: one’s attitude towards the organization, the job itself, and the work context (Feldman et

37

al., 2006). Although many practical considerations influence an individual’s decision to apply for
a job, such as geographical location or having the skills required, unobservable reflections
provide guidance as well, such as fit and belonging. Based on an assessment of the published
literature and the RCMP’s own advertisements, there are a number of recommendations that the
police should consider to better address diversity in policing and increase the number of women
in the organization.

Articulate Clearly What the RCMP has to Offer Women
The attraction and retention of diverse high-quality employees is essential for an
organization’s success (McNab & Johnson, 2002). One way this can be accomplished is by
making the organization attractive to a large portion of the applicant pool. This includes groups,
such as women, ethnic minorities, and elderly people, that may have previously faced
discrimination in the workforce. By attracting a larger number of people, more will apply
(McNab & Johnson, 2002).
Messages that identify long-term career benefits tend to be the most effective in
recruitment (Linos, 2018). The RCMP must stop using vague taglines, such as “a career nowhere
near ordinary.” These types of messages do not indicate that the RMCP wants more diverse
individuals to apply. Instead, messages that emphasize the personal benefits of applying are three
times more successful at getting people to apply without an observable loss in applicant quality
than those without (Linos, 2018). Personal benefits include challenges of the job or career
advantages (Linos, 2018). Such messages are specifically successful with women since they
identify extrinsic and intrinsic incentives, making those who may not have otherwise been
interested policing motivated to apply (Linos, 2018). Therefore, these messages should certainly

38

be considered when the policy goal of a police organization is to increase the diversity of
applicants (Linos, 2018).
Additionally, less cognitive effort is required by applicants when information concerning
the position is explicit (Feldman et al., 2006). For instance, it is important that advertisements or
other recruiting materials clearly identify that women are wanted and recommend that they
apply. Specific advertisements designed to attract women can result in more positive attitudes
towards the organization and the perception of it being a desirable place to work (Feldman et al.,
2006). Offering detailed information to applicants has a multiplicity of potential positive
outcomes. It can increase the perception that the advertisement is truthful and informative, it can
increase the perception that the advertised position will be appropriate for themselves and other
likeminded individuals, and it can increase the likelihood of completing the application process
(Feldman et al., 2006). Most RCMP advertisements contained minimal information regarding the
role of a police officer and the organization as a whole. This lack of detail can cause an applicant
to question how accurate and honest the advertisement’s claims are. Instead, the RCMP should
provide clear, specific, and comprehensive information that enables applicants to determine
whether the position is appropriate for them.
Advertisements with specific messages and focal attributes, such as a female police
officer, tend to be more credible and memorable than advertisements with general or abstract
messages (Feldman et al., 2006). Detailed advertisements also have the ability to reduce the
number of unqualified candidates (Feldman et al., 2006). Conversely, general advertisements are
less informative and create unintended misperceptions about the job itself. By decreasing the
amount of information provided in an advertisement, the believability of the message may be

39

reduced and a negative attitude towards the organization may be generated (Feldman et al.,
2006).
Moreover, it is important to identify the gender difference in specific recruitment
activities (Chapman et al., 2005). Job-specific information is often provided to establish initial
beliefs and expectations concerning the job (Feldman et al., 2006). Applicants typically pay more
attention to the parts of advertisements that offer detailed information, like exact starting salary,
rather than to vague information without clear data (Feldman et al., 2006). When determining the
attractiveness of a position, women tend to consider information about job characteristics, such
as location and pay, more than men, and may be more likely than men to seek a position that
offers a location or benefits that are less likely to conflict with other life roles, such as being the
primary caregiver to children (Chapman et al., 2005). Therefore, it is important for
advertisements to include attributes, such as location and pay, when seeking to increase the
number of female applicants. Highlighting organizational attributes that reduce the conflict with
non-work roles, such as flexible hours, location, family-friendly benefits, and on-site daycares,
may make an organization more attractive to women (Chapman et al., 2005). However, some
research has suggested that these benefits are becoming less important for women as societal
norms change (Chapman et al., 2005).
Lastly, espousing the ATA model, people with intentions to do good for others and
society seek a fit with their personal characteristics, needs, and values (Perry et al.; Perry &
Wise, 1990). Advertisements must clearly identify the ways a police officer can help society and
communities to encourage women and other minority groups with higher PSM to apply. When
women know what the RCMP has to offer and how the organization will fit their characteristics,

40

needs, and values, they will be more inclined to apply, thereby increasing the number of women
within the organization.

Fit is Fundamental
Advertisements have the ability to convey information about both the recruiting process
and job content (Feldman et al., 2006). Characteristics of the job and organization are important
factors in determining an applicant’s intention to apply (Chapman et al., 2005). For example,
perceptions of the recruiting process and organizational characteristics, such as the type of work
and work environment directly influence an applicant’s intentions. Consequently, they affect job
choice predictions (Chapman et al., 2005). Minor modifications to job advertisements have the
potential to influence a person’s perception of an organization. The attractiveness of a position
can be enhanced by emphasizing the positive characteristics of a job and the work environment
(Chapman et al., 2005). This can affect people’s discernment of belonging within an organization
and whether they choose to apply (Feldman et al., 2006; Linos, 2018; McNab & Johnston 2002).
A job advertisement may be an indication of how an organization’s values and mission fit with
the applicant’s identity and values (Linos, 2018). It also can convey what skills are essential to
be successful in the position. This can be understood as person-job fit.
As per the Person-Environment Fit Paradigm, candidates often search for cues of person–
environment fit within an advertisement when determining whether they will apply for a
particular job (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005; Linos, 2018). Supplementary fit considers the
compatibility between the values or personality of an applicant with those of the organization
(Cable & Edwards 2004; Linos, 2018). Complementary fit asks how an organization can fulfill
the applicant’s psychological needs, such as feelings of autonomy, competency, or relatedness. It

41

is the feeling that one can fulfill the requirements of their job and belong within the organization
(Linos, 2018).
Therefore, it is essential for police organizations to provide suitable signals of
complementary and supplementary fit that would attract new and different candidates (Linos,
2018). By identifying the necessary skills, perhaps focusing on some that women statistically
excel in, such as taking initiative, resilience, and developing relationships, applying to the RCMP
may be more attractive to a larger number of women (Gaucher et al., 2011; Linos, 2018; Zenger
& Folkman, 2019). In addition, job postings can include ways the RCMP can meet women’s
psychological and emotional needs.
Moreover, an individual’s values can guide their decisions and behaviors (Cable &
Edwards, 2004). Accordingly, the careers they choose reflect their preferences, values, and
experiences. These attitudes provide motivation, direction, and purpose for an individual to
pursue a particular career path (Ferreira & Coetzee, 2010). What should be emphasized in job
advertisements is largely dependent on whom the RCMP is trying to attract (Linos, 2018). Each
distinct attribute will attract a certain type of applicant. For example, including work-life balance
as a job description in an advertisement will be attractive to some applicants but not others.
Given this, advertisements should include attributes that motivate the type of person the RCMP
wants to hire (Linos, 2018). The intrinsic and extrinsic needs and values of potential applicants
must match the needs and values of the police organization and what is conveyed in the
advertisement (Linos, 2018). Small changes to language included in the advertisement can
change who is interested in a position (Linos, 2018). For example, utilizing words, such as
compassion, connection, interpersonal, and loyalty, appeal to women and can encourage them to
apply (Gaucher et al., 2011).

42

Perceptions of fit have proven to be one of the strongest predictors of an applicant’s
attraction to a position (Chaman et al., 2005). Nevertheless, despite perceptions of fit being a
stronger predictor than recruiter characteristics and job–organizational characteristics, the extent
of the improvement is often small (Chaman et al., 2005). This is important to consider because it
often takes additional resources to focus on individual applicant needs than to provide broadbased recruiting practices that are attractive to a large number of applicants to fill numerous
vacancies (Chaman et al., 2005).
When developing advertisements, the RCMP may be confronted with the challenge to
either design a general advertisement with limited job details that appeals to the masses to
increase the size of the applicant pool or to include many specific details, thereby limiting the
number of interested applicants (Feldman et al., 2006). Although having a large number of
candidates may appear advantageous, such advertisements may also increase the number of
unqualified or inappropriate applicants and become unappealing to individuals with selective
search strategies who may very well be the best fit for the job (Feldman et al., 2006). Therefore,
an advertisement should provide important information regarding the type of person an
organization is trying to attract (Linos, 2018). While organizations use advertisements to recruit
job candidates for vacant job openings, they also use them to screen out applicants with
inadequate knowledge, skills, and abilities to perform the tasks of the job (Feldman et al., 2006).
To attract women, such phrases can include empathy, effective communication, and the ability to
build relationships to instill a sense of fit (Workman-Stark, 2015). However, it must be
remembered that although organizations desire a large applicant pool to maximize their
likelihood of finding the best potential candidates, by increasing the applicant pool, the amount
of time and money spent on the selection process increases (Feldman et al., 2006).

43

Woman-Centred Wording
Supported by SDT research, the existence of social inequality and divisions of labour can
be perpetuated and preserved in a variety of ways (Gaucher et al., 2011). Gaucher et al. (2011)
found that job advertisements for occupations that are primarily male dominated utilized more
stereotypical masculine words or words associated with male stereotypes, such as leader,
competitive, and dominant, compared to advertisements for positions largely occupied by
women (Gaucher et al., 2011). However, no difference was noted in the presence of feminine
wording or words associated with female stereotypes, such as support, understanding, or
interpersonal, within positions or jobs that are not dominated by a gender (Gaucher et al., 2011).
Gaucher et al. (2011) found that when advertisements included more masculine than
feminine words, there was a perception that more men worked within these occupations. In
addition, women found these jobs less appealing (Gaucher et al., 2011). Gendered wording is
common in male-dominated fields like policing. Consequently, it contributes to the division of
traditional gender roles by dissuading women’s interest in applying to the police (Gaucher et al.,
2011). By addressing women with advertisements or a webpage specific to them, with genderspecific wording, they can be encouraged to apply. These efforts by the organization demonstrate
to women that they are wanted, valued, and important.

Messenger Characteristics
A job advertisement is composed of both a message and a messenger. Accordingly, both
channels are important. A messenger not only depicts whom the organization is trying to attract,
but also influences the way a message is perceived by underrepresented groups (Linos, 2018).

44

The messenger in an advertisement can strengthen the message for individuals who perceive the
messenger as a peer from a variety of perspectives, such as race, age, or gender (Linos, 2018).
Milgram (2002) suggested that the following messages should be included in all
recruitment efforts, “we have women officers who are role models in our department, we want
women, we welcome women, women are leaders in our organization and have upward career
paths, women have career opportunities in all areas of the agency, including special operations,
and law enforcement offers a good salary and benefits” (p. 24). This creates strong positive
messages to encourage and increase the number of women recruits (Milgram, 2002). Both
messenger and messaging must be clear, namely that the organization wants, welcomes, and
values diversity (Yu, 2018).
People tend to be more attracted to and trusting of other people who are similar to them
(Cable & Edwards, 2004). Of note, visual imagery emphasizing gender and racial diversity is
correlated with higher ratings of organizational attractiveness for women and visible minorities
because applicants see the diverse messengers as peers (Linos, 2018; Riccucci et al., 2014). By
exposing images of successful marginalized populations, the advertisement may resonate more
with members of those groups depicted. Subsequently, the application rates of underrepresented
groups may increase (Linos, 2018). When a female applicant goes to the home page of a
department’s website and only finds photographs of male officers, she is less likely to click
through the recruitment information than if she sees images of someone similar to her (Milgram,
2002). Although the RCMP has a separate Women in Policing page that acknowledges that the
RCMP is committed to increasing the number of female police officers and encourages women
to attend a “Women in Policing” career presentation, overall the RCMP still uses more images of
men in its recruitment material and careers webpage. Therefore, if the RCMP wishes to attract

45

more female applicants, it must ensure that the images on their website, brochures, flyers, and
other publications include more women officers (Milgram, 2002).

Recruitment Location
Using advertising as a recruitment strategy may require a major paradigm shift for some
police organizations (Milgram, 2002; Yu, 2018). Agencies must proactively recruit through their
webpages, social media, and other news outlets to entice quality candidates to apply in an effort
to reflect the diversity of the communities they serve (Milgram, 2002; Yu, 2018). Police
departments should also reach out to physically active women by posting flyers in nontraditional places, such as gyms, locker rooms of women’s sports teams, and facilities for rock
climbing, karate, kickboxing, and similar activities (Milgram, 2002). The Delaware State Police
Department, for example, has recruited several successful applicants by posting flyers in the
women’s locker room of a local health club (Milgram, 2002).
There are many police agencies that connect with educational institutions to develop a
collaborative goal of recruiting female students. This includes internships for students to
strengthen their associations with the police (Milgram, 2002). Additionally, recruiters can pursue
potential female applicants by getting in contact with women who have hobbies that are
traditionally dominated by men, such as aviation, skydiving, or target shooting (Milgram, 2002).
The ability to connect with these lesser-known groups has become easier with the rise of the
Internet and digital communication (Milgram, 2002). “When law enforcement agencies reach out
to qualified women and send them the message that they are welcome and valued, these
departments can significantly increase the number of females in their training academies and
ultimately on the force” (Milgram, 2002, p. 23).

46

Recruiters should also consider reaching out to their own civilian employees. These
individuals are already connected to the department and understand its culture (Milgram, 2002).
Agency programs, such as police aides, cadets, and reserves, offer potential recruitment
opportunities (Milgram, 2002). As an example, the Winnipeg Police Service has recruited
several women officers through its cadet program who were eventually accepted into the training
academy with a final goal of becoming a police officer (McGuckin, 2018).

Effective Internet Use
The Internet is a primary platform for millennials seeking employment and enables police
agencies to provide comprehensive information about their organization and recruitment
processes (Milgram, 2002). Police departments are increasingly using the Internet to recruit job
applicants (Milgram, 2002). The internet offers an inexpensive method to reach potential
candidates from across the country and around the world (Milgram, 2002). One way to increase
the number of female applicants is by using targeted marketing strategies. In other words,
segmenting the market based on specific socio-demographic and socio-economic factors and
implementing women-specific recruitment strategies may be more effective in recruiting more
women into the RCMP. This can include having a web page explicitly for women, sponsoring a
women-centred police career orientation, or developing a peer mentorship program whereby
potential female applicants apply to be matched up with female officers to ask questions, get
advice on the recruitment process, and recognize the benefits of becoming a police officer
(Milgram, 2002).
One example of an organization with effective Internet usage is the San Jose Police
Department (SJPD). An analysis of the department’s numbers in 2000 revealed that the

47

percentage of females in their academy increased from 8% to 50% in approximately one year. In
that time, the only change in their recruitment practices was the creation of a women-in-policing
section on the agency’s website (Milgram, 200). The 2000 recruitment survey discovered that the
largest number of applicants learned of the job openings through the department’s website
(Milgram, 2002). In this situation, the website presented the SJPD in a way that emphasized its
values aligned with female applicants by featuring biographies and photographs of the
department’s diverse group of female officers (Milgram, 2002). This ties back to the importance
of ensuring recruitment materials emphasize that the needs, values, and goals of the organization
are compatible with female applicants.

Create a Sense of Belonging
Belongingness affects people’s propensity to enter a particular domain. When an
organization mentions wanting and supporting diversity, yet shows photos suggesting low
minority representation, distrust and discomfort of the organization may develop (Gaucher et al.,
2011). “Do I belong?” is a crucial question people ask themselves when deciding to enter,
continue, or abandon something (Walton & Cohen, 2007). The need to belong and be socially
connected are basic human motivations (Walton & Cohen, 2007). Applicants from
underrepresented groups are more likely to be responsive to cues of belonging than their white
counterparts (James et al., 2017). Members of socially stigmatized groups tend to be more
uncertain about the quality of their social bonds and more sensitive to issues surrounding social
belonging. This belonging uncertainty contributes to racial disparities in achievement (Walton &
Cohen, 2007).

48

Walton and Cohen (2007) suggested that some socially stigmatized groups assume that
they might not fit into a given organization. They tend to be more sensitive to signals of
belonging that lead to the hypothesis “people like me do not belong here” (Linos, 2018; Walton
& Cohen, 2007). This includes cues within job advertisements. Stigmatization can create
uncertainties about social bonds, leading to belonging uncertainty (Walton & Cohen, 2007). This
uncertainty can be compounded by the psychological consequences that result from
stigmatization and experiences of mistrust of the motives behind the way people treat them
(Walton & Cohen, 2007). This threat to social connectedness and social identity largely affects
an individual’s motivation (Walton & Cohen, 2007). To avoid belonging uncertainty, police
organizations should include the presence of female officers in marketing campaigns and
realistically highlight the duties and responsibilities associated with policing (Yu, 2018).
When law enforcement agencies connect with qualified individuals conveying the
message that they are welcome and valued, they can increase considerably the number of diverse
individuals selected (Milgram 2002; Yu, 2018). For example, when agencies substantially
increase their female applicant pool, there is a higher probability that they will hire more female
recruits (Milgram, 2002; Yu, 2018). The RCMP should continue to display women in police
roles in their advertisements if they truly wish to increase their number of female officers.

Research Limitations
This major paper examined the ways a number of RCMP job advertisements can
encourage or discourage women to apply to become police officers. Due to the restricted length
and time available, this major paper was limited solely to the advertisements housed on
google.ca. Therefore, advertisements that did not show up in this search were excluded and not

49

analyzed in this study. In effect, this major paper provided a cursory review of some of the
advertisements produced by the RCMP in their recruitment efforts in an attempt to identify the
possible relationship between how the RCMP present themselves in a small sample of their
recruitment advertisements and the low representation of women in the RCMP. However, as not
all recruitment posters were available, the selection used in this major paper may not be
representative of all RCMP recruitment posters over the past 70 years. As such, the preliminary
findings presented in this major paper should be considered with caution.
It must also be noted that an applicant may value one piece of information in an
advertisement over another. For instance, an applicant may consider the pay relative to the job
description when deciding whether to apply. Therefore, the relative strength of predictors is
dependent upon what factors are being considered (Chapman at el., 2005). Additionally, this
major paper focused exclusively on job advertisement wording and imagery. There are other
techniques that the RCMP use to encourage women to apply. For example, the recruiter and
recruitment process are both important determining factors. The way the recruiting process is
perceived affects job choice and an applicant’s attitude and intentions (Chapman et al., 2005).
How an applicant perceives a recruiter encompasses the recruiter’s characteristics and
behaviours. For instance, if a recruiter is friendly and competent, a position may appear more
attractive, regardless of the imagery used in advertising posters (Chapman et al., 2005). While
positive recruiting experiences may not incentivize applicants to accept job offers, there is a
greater likelihood that individuals will reject a job offer if they have a negative recruiting
experience (Feldman et al., 2006).
Future research should continue to evaluate the value of diversity and what effect diverse
groups have on policing. This can include visible minorities, ages, and people of diverse sexual

50

orientations. Such studies could offer recommendations on how to encourage various diverse
groups to apply to policing organizations. Additionally, it is important to identify whether
retention is an issue. If it is an issue, it is not sufficient to simply focus on recruitment and
marketing methods since it is one issue to get members of diverse groups to apply to the police,
and another to keep them in the organization. This leads to the importance of identifying cultural
and systemic issues within the organization. That being said, the most effective recruitment
messages and methods should continue to be explored in future research, particularly identifying
what RCMP messaging, imagery, and tag lines can have the greatest increase in the number of
female applicants taking into consideration the suggested recommendations (Linos, 2018).

Conclusion
In recent years, the RCMP has experienced various staffing challenges (Tunney, 2018).
Though the challenge in attracting a diverse workforce is not unique to policing (Yu, 2018), the
presence of physical risk perpetrates a culture of masculinity and a dominant image of the ideal
man who is autonomous, brave, and strong (Workman-Stark, 2015). To encourage masculinity, a
focus on the image of the physical crime fighter has remained, while the social service aspects of
the job have continued to be downplayed (Workman-Stark, 2015). However, a culture change
towards diversity has the potential to maximize the efficiency of a diverse workforce.
Policing continues to evolve. While historically masculine qualities of strength, authority,
and power have dominated policing, the introduction of community policing has created an
environment that serves to create cooperative relationships with communities (Workman-Stark,
2015). Yet, the findings of this major paper highlight how the RCMP and other police
organizations continue to utilize masculine images and wording to define what it means to be a

51

police officer, both internally within the organization and externally in its advertisements and job
postings (Workman-Stark, 2015). Recruitment material continues to portray male police officers
in tactical and other traditional crime-fighting roles (Workman-Stark, 2015). This suggests that,
despite the increased number of women in policing, the masculine reality within policing has not
been wholly resolved (Workman-Stark, 2015). Gender issues, such as sexual abuse, harassment,
and discrimination within the RCMP, remain as the organization attempts to shed its old attitudes
and aim for equity and diversity (Montgomery, 2016).
While many elements contribute to obtaining diverse candidates and there is a
multiplicity of reasons as to why some groups are less inclined to apply, it is evident that at least
part of the equation is how police organizations recruit new members. The results of this research
have important implications for police recruitment. Given that many police organizations stress
community policing as a guiding philosophy, it is essential that diversity among their members is
offered (O’Connor, 2008). Women are unique and bring varied skill sets that focus on
communication, critical-thinking, problem-solving, and conflict resolution. Thus, recruiting more
women would transform law enforcement (Yu, 2018).
The ability to change the RCMP is a slow process. However, the RCMP aims to move
beyond compliance with statutory obligations to inclusion and remains committed to ensuring it
is a place where employees feel valued and respected, and able to contribute to their full
potential, regardless of gender, ethnicity, disability, sexual orientation, age, or any other personal
attribute (RCMP, 2015, 2018). The RCMP remains dedicated to increasing the number of
women in regular member, officer, and executive positions (RCMP, 2018).
Becoming an inclusive and diverse organization will require a fundamental shift in
thinking, culture, leadership styles, and problem solving (RCMP, 2015). However, the RCMP

52

must continue to pursue initiatives and recruitment methods that combat biases, remove barriers,
and encourage underrepresented groups to apply. This can be done by clearly identifying what
the RCMP has to offer, providing signals of complementary and supplementary fit, utilizing
woman-centred wording and visual images emphasizing diversity, recruiting in strategic
locations, effectively using the internet to implement women-specific recruitment strategies, and
promoting a sense of belonging and organizational attractiveness for women.

53

Appendix A – RCMP Advertisements

Advertisement 1: Advertisement from the 1950s Found on Google Search “1974”

Advertisement 2: Advertisement from the 1950s Found on Google Search “1974”

54

Advertisement 3: Advertisement from 1951 - Found on
Google Search “1980”

Advertisement 4: Advertisement from 1981 - Found on
Google Search “1981”

55

Advertisement 5: Advertisement from
unknown year - Found on Google Search
“1974”

Advertisement 6: Advertisement from
2017 - Found on Google Search “2014”

56

Advertisement 7: Advertisement from 2014 Found on Google Search “2000”

Advertisement 8: Advertisement from 2012 Found on Google Search “2011”

57

Advertisement 9: Advertisement from 2012 Found on Google Search “2012”

Advertisement 10: Advertisement from 2017 Found on Google Search “2013”

58

Advertisement 11: Advertisement from 2014 Found on Google Search “2014”

Advertisement 12: Advertisement from 2018 Found on Google Search “2016”

59

Advertisement 13:
Advertisement from 2019 Found on Google Search “2019”

Advertisement 14: Advertisement from
2019 - Found on Google Search “2019”

60

Advertisement 15: Advertisement
from 2019 - Found on Google Search
“2019”

Advertisement 16: Advertisement
from 2019 - Found on Google
Search “2019”

61

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